THINKING GLOBALLY,
ACTING LOCALLY:
1750 - 1914
SNAPSHOTS OF NATIONS IN
WORLD HISTORY
INDIA: EXTERNAL
Interactions
War: French Revolution impacts seas, princes, ports of India – English expand control
War: Numerous colonial wars of conquest; revolts against European control
War: 1858 Sepoy Rebellion of Muslims, Hindus against British rule
Diplomacy: UK gets external control, land, rights, Indians get local self-rule, protection, prestige
Diplomacy: India becomes a British imperial colony, extends rule to neighboring lands
Trade: Export relied particularly on opium, raw cotton, indigo dye, cotton textiles, tea, rubber
Trade: British make Indian economy dependent on English trade, merchants
Trade: Opening of Suez Canal made India economically very important
State Structure
1750: Many princely states vie for leadership; English East India Company on rise
1858: United Kingdom takes over EEIC after Sepoy Rebellion, rules India directly
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Cabinet system was introduced; civil service appointments were regulated
Army reorganized, recruited increasingly from the Punjab and Nepal
Code of civil procedure (1859), penal code (1860), code of criminal procedure (1861), high courts (1862)
Legislative councils were appointed containing a small proportion of Indian members
High caste Indians allowed to hold higher positions
Joint Anglo-Indian rule
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British: land revenue-based state, sedentary society, guarantees of property rights, and the “rule of law.”
Regional rulers, local communities, local elites retained most social, political influence
Locals advanced visions of what Indian society should be that were different from British administrators
First nationalist movements, Hindu, Muslim reform movements
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Political leaders such as Gandhi begin to unite urban, rural and social, religious activities to unify nation
1914 Indian Congress Party seeks independence for a united Hindu-Muslim state
1914 Muslim League seeking independence for Muslims from a Hindu state
INDIA: INTERNAL
Social and Gender
Profound social changes both by British, locals
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English hostile to worst aspects of traditions, caste system but rule through elite Muslims, Hindus
Rise of English educated and technical elite; Indian bureaucracy, civil service largely native
British abolish sati; tried to diminish effects of caste system
Wealthy Indian merchants increasing buy land and do not invest in industry, trade
Elimination of the Thugees, a murderous Kali cult by British
Increasing tensions between Muslim, Hindus; Sikhs prominent in Indian Army
British officials accompanied by wives, socially and intellectually aloof from Indian subjects.
Cultural
Founding of Anglo-Indian colleges, schools of higher education
Rise of Orientalism, a European intellectual school favoring Indian studies (Transcendentalists)
Protestant, Catholic missionaries very active in India, especially south; resented by Muslims, Hindus
Rise of Indian movie industry - later called Bollywood, largest in world today
Technology
British introduced printing press in 1778 creating an intellectual revolution
Printed media especially newspapers expanded in 19th century
British developed public works, ports, roads, railroads, bridges, irrigation canals, telegraph, post
Indian Great Rail System unites country for first time
Industrialization limited but some regional industrialization occurred in Bombay, Bengal
Environment and Demography
Indian population increased with new food stuffs
Increased urbanization
Growth of plantation economics in many areas: teas, rubber, opium
Immigration of Indian labor throughout British Empire
THE INDIAN EMPIRE, 1914
SUDAN
Interactions
War: Egyptian conquest of the Upper Nile followed by British suppression of the Madhis
War: Slaving, cattle raiding by Caucasian Muslims of Blacks
Trade: Slaves, ivory down Nile to Egypt later suppressed by British
Diplomacy: British intervene in 1896 to prevent region from falling into France’s hands
1898: Fashoda Crisis - British, French, Belgian conflict over control of Upper Nile led to British victory
State Structure
1821: Colony under Turko-Egyptian administrators, troops, tax collectors, slavers, ivory hunters
1880-1898: Madhi centralized state under Wahhabis Islamic sect
1898-1914: Joint Anglo-Egyptian co-dominion overseen by British commissioner, officers
Social and Gender
Immigration of Muslim Arabic Egyptians into Sudan as administrators, merchant, slave traders
1850s: Expansion of Muslim slave trade against black southerners
Cultural
Mahdist jihad against Europeans, impure Muslims, missionaries, unfair taxes, in support of slave trade
Mahdism: puritanical form of Islam originated in region, spread to Arabia
Southern blacks largely cattle herders, animists: some Christianity amongst Nubian elite
Technology
Technology of Conquest: British used modern weapons, transport to control Sudan, defeat Mahdist state
Technology of Control: railroads built to Egypt, to port of Red Sea
Environment and Demography
North, East (Caucasian, Muslim, Arab)
South, West (Black, animist, Christian, Muslim)
Khartoum: newly founded city 1821; fortified trading posts established
Epidemis: Rinderpest, small pox hit region, killed 90% of cattle, flattened population growth
FRENCH WEST AFRICA
Interactions
War/Diplomacy
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Jihads by Sokoto to spread faith; slaving wars; civil wars and disruptions between Muslim states
1885 Conference of Berlin regulated partition of Africa, required Europeans to occupy lands they claimed
By 1898 French had reached Lake Chad and Nile River; Fashoda Crisis nearly led to war with England
Trade
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Industrial capitalism shaped the demand, supply of goods and service on a world scale; price fluctuations
Export of vegetable oils, cottons
State Structure
Militant Muslim forces established Sokoto Caliphate, others in early to middle 19th century
French West Africa
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Established in 1895 to unify diverse, widespread French colonial possessions
Government centralized, direct rule from Paris, by French governor; all levels of government, courts run by French
All French colonies had to be self-supporting, taxable entities; little direct French investment in colonies
Forms of resistance: migration, tax evasion, disobedience, disrespect
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Much less obvious, much more difficult to control; resistance continued throughout colonial period
Africans turned to Christianity, Western education as means of resisting the power of colonial rule
Social and Gender
Expansion of slavery to interior of Africa; contributed to agricultural, craft, trading, and herding activities; social prestige
Mouridiyya brotherhood: peasants, former slaves, defeated warriors to create Muslim community during French colonial rule
French expect men to migrate for work; while slavery abolished, many coerchive forms of labor used
Cultural
Islamic education, piety made significant advances; greatest Muslim revival, expansion of 19th century
White Fathers Mission charged with Catholic missionary work in Africa
Technology
French weapons, transportation, steamships made conquest, control of empire easier
Use of quinine iin suppressing malaria, permitting Europeans to live longer in the African tropics
Environment and Demography
Expansion of peanut production (Peanut Revolution) throughout region
Introduction of cotton production for export
FRENCH
WEST AFRICA
NIGERIA
Interactions
War: 1750-1830 saw slaving wars between African states; later many civil wars for power
War: 1870-1914 colonial wars of conquest, British forced to put down resistance
Diplomacy: British gradually exclude other Europeans from Nigerian area
Trade: industrializing countries sought tropical commodities (oils, cotton, ivory, indigo, gum)
Trade: increased slavery augmented production of goods for regional and international trade
Exploration: the Niger, interior of the continent
State Structure
Forest Regions: 1750 until conquest -Divine right monarchies assisted by elites, councils ruled small states
Sudan/Sahel: 1750 until conquest- Muslim jihad, reformist purifying movement creates modern, model states
Royal Niger Company instrumental in acquiring lands, facilitation British expansion to interior
British establish two colonies: North, South and eventually merge both into one colonial entity
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British dominate highest positions including military; ruled indirectly through local elites
Educated Africans become government civil servants, lawyers, police, teachers under British supervision
Social and Gender
Before British arrival, slave trade redirected to interior and expanded; many economic, social benefits
African slavery contributed to patriarchy because slave wives had fewer rights than freeborn wives
Traditional elites remained but undermined by European educated elites, Christians, businessmen
Cultural
British, American missionaries set up schools, begin activities (Presbyterians, Methodists, Anglicans)
Rise of western educated elite due to missionaries, education which challenged traditional elites
In villages were men migrated to work, women assumed many traditional male roles
British economics, education disrupted many tradition patterns and changed social focus
Technology
Steamboats used in environment; weapons; modern medicines made conquest easier
Railroads, electricity, roads, port facilities expanded and created a unified colony
Environment and Demography
Abolition of Atlantic slave trade in 19th century but expansion of slavery within African interior
Peanuts, yams introduced into region, a major food crop: population expanded in 19th century
Rise of Lagos as administrative capital, port
SOUTH AFRICA
Interactions
Diplomacy: British acquire land from Dutch following Napoleonic war
Wars: European border wars with Bantu; Anglo-Boer War 1899
Bantu Mfecane caused by Zulus; Great Trek: Boers immigrated into interior to get away from British
Imperialism: gold, diamonds led British to seek to control Boer Republics
State Structure
Cape Colony, Natal were British settler colonies; Transvaal, Orange Free State were independent
Indirect British rule of Africans through chiefs; 1853 British settlers acquire legislature, self-rule
Union of South Africa as a British federal crown dominion in 1910 united all states, provinces
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Immigration Act of 1913 restricted rights of Indians, led to arrest, rise of Gandhi
Native Land Act of 1913 restricted African landing holding to under 8%
African National Congress founded by blacks in 1913; South African Nationalist party founded in 1914
Social and Gender
1795 Slaves outnumbered European colonists
19th century saw expulsions of Bantu from lands; heavy English settler immigration to colonies
Casted society with misgenation laws, racial segregation laws in place
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English Settlers; Afrikaaner (Boer) Settlers dominate society
Indian indentured labor in sugar plantations; mixed populations in Cape Colony, Natal
African (Bantu) populations relegated to homelands, tribal lands
Cultural
Conversion of many Africans to Protestantism
Caucasians dominated all levels of the government, economy as there were enough settlers
Technology
Railroads, modernized ports
Heavy mining of gold, diamonds led to industrial capitalism, influenced imperialism
Environment and Demography
Ranching and farming introduced
Cities were often heavily Caucasian, Indian, Mixed populations: black suburban slums
SOUTH AFRICA
THE SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICA
Interactions
INDOCHINA
Diplomacy: Began century as Chinese tributary states, independent princely states
Diplomacy: Negotiations left Thailand as buffer and led to annexation of Laos by 1902
Wars: French fought Chinese, Vietnamese, Siam to acquire colonies, protectorates 1859 - 1882
War: many peasant/guerrilla insurrection, Buddhist rebellions against French influence
Imperialism: British, French rewrote boundaries at will with no regard for local history
State Structure
Vietnam began as imperial state with Confucian bureaucracy modeled after China
French navy conquer southern area, including Cambodia
Introduced European administration, taxing/fiscal systems but left many ruling elites in place
French monopolies on salt, opium, alcohol, and all public facilities
Social and Gender
French colonial administrators assisted by French trained Vietnamese bureaucrats
Confucian ruling elites, traditional social structures largely left in place but little influence
Cultural
Conversion of many Vietnamese to Christianity, repression by emperor led to French intervention
French practice policy of cultural assimilation of elites allowing them to rule locals
Migration of Chinese merchants to area especially in South, to cities
Many Vietnamese intellectuals educated in French universities
Technology
Minimal infusion of modern technology, irrigation, all weather roads, ports especially in south
Conquest by technologies of imperialism: warships, modern weapons, telegraph
Coal mines and rice plantations were opened with French funding
Environment and Demography
Rise of Saigon, Hanoi, Haiphong due to French administration
Export industries dominate: plantations for rubber, tea, rice
FRENCH INDOCHINA
Interactions
DUTCH EAST INDIES
War and Diplomacy
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Dutch conquer island interiors following Javanese revolt
Dutch, English redrew political map according to their own desires; boundaries have lasted until current era
New boundaries connected particular power centers within a Dutch colonial state, outside state to Netherlands
Trade
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Export industries increased rapidly until they came to dominate the economy
Capitalist, world-market-driven forces created national economic structures
State Structure
Dutch created new political framework
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Systematically replaced local rulers, states with colonial state; Imposed modern bureaucratic systems
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Standardization of currency systems, banking systems, insurance firms, and all-purpose service institutions
Left many local institutions, elites in place so long as they cooperated with Dutch, fulfilled their economic quotas
Sarekat Islam (Islamic Union)
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United different kinds of Indonesian Muslims in one mass movement
Modeled after Indian movements, Chinese Revolution and parties
Social and Gender
Forced culture system: government contracts with natives, crop control, and fixed prices
Private enterprise, land ownership expanded in late 19th century; population subject to world price fluxuations
Cultural
Dutch Native Schools: primary schools, university education helped fuel Indonesian nationalism
Islamic reformism (education, self-reform) came to Indonesia via movements in Middle East
Debate between revivalist, modernist reconstructions of Islam; rise of ethnic identities
• Prompted social and intellectual changes
• Resistance movements and new political parties
Environment and Demography
Population steadily, rapidly increased; significant migrations into and within the area
Chinese, Indian trading groups made up significant percentage of immigrants
Introduction of coffee, tea, rubber, cocoa plantations; rice production expanded
Dutch developed tin, oil industries
DUTCH EAST INDIES
Interactions
BRAZIL
War: Home of Portuguese royal family during Napoleonic Wars, Uruguay independence
War: Triple Alliance war against Paraguay in 1870s
Diplomacy: Through negotiations extended borders against weaker states
State Structure
1750: Portuguese crown colony, governors appointed by Lisbon, landed elite ruled
1820-1888: Empire of Brazil, monarchy, social structure based on slavery, entrenched regional elites
Centralist vs. liberal argument dominated politics; many revolts by elites, poor in outlying regions
1888: Empire abolished over slavery issue, federal republic declared, repaid slaveholders for slaves
Heavy influence of military, regional elites, wealthy elite in government; rebellions, military coups
Social and Gender
1750: Plantation casted society with minority whites, majority black population: slaves, poor rural
Slave Trade, Slavery abolished in 1888 by decree of Princess Regent
1888: Society with whites, blacks, mixed populations; remained casted
Society dominated by the landed, generally white elite; poor rural blacks were landless proletariat
Middle class began to grow in cities with rise of industry, export; workers were Italian, immigrant
Cultural
Ruling population thoroughly Europeanized; blacks retained many African traditions
Catholicism is the only unifying force and it is a syncretic blend; many traditional African beliefs
Technology
Railroads, steamboats, paddlewheelers opened up interior, united Brazil
Development of some industries related to export, trade; Sao Paolo rises as the industrial center
Environment and Demography
Sugar economy gave way to coffee, cocoa plantations
Mining increased, gold rush to Minas Gerais; rubber boom in Amazon led to mass immigration
Massive European immigration (laborers) especially Italians
Interactions
Trade
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PERU
Exploitation of export commodities stiffened competition among military strongmen
Expansion of silver production, wool production for export
1840s - 1880s: rise of export of guano (bird dung) as fertilizers for Europe; massive state revenues
Copper mines, rubber production begun with American finance capital
War
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Wars of Independence led by Jose de San Martin and Simon Bolivar: Peru one of last colonies to achieve independence
War of the Pacific with Chile, allied to Bolivia to control nitrate, copper rich area of Atacama Desert
Chileans victorious, occupy whole coast of Peru
During which Chinese rebel, Indians rebel in highland; military coup leads to civil war
State Structure
After independence
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Driven by conflict between rival military caudillos
Constant conflict between liberals (local autonomy, reforms), centralists (centralized state control)
1895: New era of democratically elected rulers
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Modernized administration; suppressed worst of Indian tributes; foreign interests bought up by government
Expansion of educational opportunities
Social and Gender
Indians and Africans
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Indian communal properties abolished, facilitating their despoilment by landlords
Indian tribute continued to be collected.
On the coast, mestizo peasants and wage laborers participated in the market economy
In the highlands, Indian communities, mestizo peasants subject to coercion by large landowners, state
1850s: Indian labor, slavery abolished, owners compensated
Conscript labor, immigrant labor in slave like conditions persisted in Amazon, out of sight of Lima
Technology
Railroads built, linking port to capital, interior to coast
Environment and Demography
Chinese immigrants to work guano fields
MAP OF
PERU
BRAZIL: EMPIRE TO REPUBLIC