Modules 1-4 - Summer Work
AP Psychology
Mr. Cruikshank
Psychology – What is it?
- The science of behavior and mental processes
- Behavior: Observable actions of a person or an
animal
- Mental processes: thoughts, feelings, sensations,
perceptions, memories, dreams, motives and
other subjective experiences
Psychology – What is it?
• Is Psychology a science??
▫ Science
 An objective way to answer questions
 Based on observable facts/data and well described
methods
• YES!
Psychology – What is it??
• A set of questions about mental functioning
▫ trace back to philosophy
▫ Aristotle asked about memory, personality, emotions, etc.
• A set of theories and procedures for asking and
answering questions
▫ the scientific method
▫ evolved over centuries, first in physics
• A product of history
▫ philosophy asked many of the basic questions
▫ physiology used similar methods
Developments from Philosophy
• Major question asked by many philosophers:
▫ How are the mind and the body related??
• Many different theories
• Dualism – Mind and body are two separate
entities, however they are interrelated
▫ origins in medieval religion
▫ soul is seat of intellectual function and will
▫ mind is product of the soul
 mind not subject to scientific inquiry
▫ to challenge this was punishable by death
Developments from Philosophy
• Dualism – Mind and body are separate
• Rene Descartes (1596 – 1650) came up with a
theory of modified dualism
▫ since animals have no soul, much behavior does
not require soul
▫ the body can therefore control much behavior
 led him to study reflexes
▫ the soul’s main function is thought, a uniquely
human attribute
Developments from Philosophy
• Other theories developed about the relationship
between the mind and the body
• Materialism: Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)
▫ mind is a product of the brain
▫ soul is not involved in human behavior
• Empiricism:
▫ knowledge and intellect are acquired, comes from
experience
▫ science flourishes through observation/experiment
▫ sensory experiences produce elementary ideas
▫ elementary ideas become associated into complex
thought and ideas
Developments from Philosophy
• Another MAJOR question asked by early
philosophers was: Where do our ideas come from?
• Empiricism vs. Nativism
• Nativism: elementary ideas are innate
• Empiricism: our minds are a blank slate, to be filled
by our experiences
• If nativism is true…
▫ What is the purpose of education?
▫ Can intellect be changed by experience
• NATURE VS. NURTURE
Developments from Philosophy
Foundations of Modern Psychology
• Charles Darwin (1809-1882)
• Theory of natural selection
(1859)
▫ physical characteristics evolve through
natural selection
▫ behavioral patterns also influence
selection
▫ inborn knowledge and behavioral
tendencies with survival value are passed
on
• Human beings are part of
nature and can be understood
through the methods of science
Foundations of Modern Psychology
• Darwin’s theory encouraged scientific inquiry
• 19th century developments in physiology
demonstrated the approach to use
▫ based on scientific methods, controlled laboratory experiments
▫ influential beliefs from early physiology
 reflexology - all human behaviors occur through reflexes
 localization of function - specific structures of the brain serve specific
functions in the control of mental experiences and behavior
• Separated from philosophy in 19th century
▫ influences from physiology remain
Foundations of Modern Psychology
• Wilhelm Wundt (18321920)
▫ First psychology lab in Leipzig,
Germany
▫ wrote the first psychology
textbook
▫ applied laboratory techniques to
study of the mind
▫ Used introspection – selfexamination of one’s own
emotional states and
mental processes
 No longer in use – too
unreliable/subjective
Foundations of Modern Psychology
• Edward Titchener
▫ Was an English student of
Wundt
▫ Set up a psych lab at Cornell
in 1892.
▫ Established a school of
thought known as
structuralism
• Structuralism –
Consciousness can be broken
down into basic parts using
introspection techniques
Foundations of Modern Psychology
• William James
▫ American Harvard Professor
▫ Wrote a well-respected
textbook Principles of
Psychology (1890).
▫ Founded school of thought
known as functionalism
 Stressed looking at the
function/purpose of behavior
and tried to apply findings to
practical situations.
 No longer in use but gave rise
to behaviorism
Foundations of Modern Psychology
• G. Stanley Hall (American)
▫ Established the first psych lab in the US at Johns
Hopkins (1883)
▫ Established the first psych journal in the US
▫ Founded the American Psychological Association
(APA) in 1892 and was its first president
• Mary Whiton Calkins
▫ Completed Ph.D. in Psych under James at Harvard
but not granted degree because she was a woman
▫ Received a lesser degree from Radcliffe.
▫ First woman president of the APA in 1905
Foundations of Modern Psychology
John B. Watson
•Founder of Behaviorism
•Studied only observable
and objectively described
acts
•Emphasized objective
and scientific
methodology
John B. Watson
(1878–1958)
Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
• Behaviorist
• Russian Physiologist
• Studied learning through
associations in animals
• Emphasized the study of
observable behaviors
B.F. Skinner
•Behaviorist
•American psychologist at
Harvard
•Focused on learning
through rewards and
observation
•studied learning and effect
of reinforcement
B. F. Skinner (1904–
1990)
Sigmund Freud
(1856-1939)
• Austrian physician that focused
on illness
• Founder of the psychoanalytic
perspective
• Believed that abnormal
behavior originated from
unconscious drives and conflicts
Freud’s Influence
• Influence on “pop culture”
▫ Freudian slips
▫ Anal-retentive
• Influence on psychology
▫ Psychodynamic theory
▫ Unconscious thoughts
▫ Significance of childhood experiences
Carl Rogers
(1902-1987)
&
Abraham Maslow
(1908-1970)
• Helped to create Humanistic Psychology
• Stressed the study of conscious experience and an
individual’s free will
• Healthy individuals strive to reach their potential.
Wolfgang Kohler
• Created Gestalt Psychology
• The whole is different from
the sum of its parts.
• Integrate pieces of
information into
meaningful wholes.
Wolfgang Kohler
(1865-1965)
What do you see?
You See the whole picture first rather than the individual
dots that make it up. – Gestalt Psychology
Foundations of Modern Psychology
• Margaret Floy Washburn
▫ First woman to earn a PhD in psychology
▫ 2nd woman president of the APA
• Francis Cecil Sumner (US)
▫ First African American Ph.D. in psychology
▫ Clark University
▫ Started Psych department at Howard University
• Kenneth Clark (US)
▫ Documented the harmful effect of school segregation
on Black children.
▫ First African-American APA president (1971)
Psychology’s Subfields
• Basic Research
▫ Aim is to increase our scientific knowledge base.
▫ Study is conducted to satisfy curiosity and answer
questions we have about behavior or mental
processes.
• Applied Research/Psychology
▫ Aim is to solve practical problems
▫ Looks for ways that research psychology can be
made useful and helpful
Subfields in Psychology
Distribution of Fields:
Industrial/Organizational 3%
Biological and
Experimental
16%
Other
Psychology
15%
Social/Personality 8%
Educational 3%
Developmental 6%
School 3%
Clinical
36%
Counseling 10%
Professional Work Settings
Employment Settings of
Psychologists
universities
• Colleges and
• Clinical settings
• Elementary and
secondary schools
• Business
• Government
Business
& Industry
School
Universities &
College
Private
Practice
Government
Psychology Careers
• Clinical Psychologists
▫ Largest group of practitioners
▫ Involved in the diagnosis and treatment of
psychological disorders
▫ Duties include psychological testing, interviewing
and therapy
• Psychiatrist
▫ Medical doctor dealing with psychological
disorders
▫ Provide medical treatments as well as psychological
treatment
▫ Only one who can prescribe medicine!
Psychology Careers
• Counseling Psychologists
▫ Often work with clients whose problems are of a
moderate degree
▫ Many specialize in marital or family counseling
• School Psychologists
▫ Concerned with social, intellectual, and emotional
development of students
▫ Often test students for special programs
• Educational Psychologists
▫ Involved in teacher training, curriculum design
and other related educational processes
Psychology Careers
• Industrial/Organizational Psychologists
▫ Work in business and industry
▫ Attempt to improve productivity
▫ May develop employee selection programs, work
with advertisers, study consumer behavior, etc.
• Social Psychologists
▫ Experimental psychologists who study social
situations
▫ Study topics such as conformity, obedience,
leadership style
• Developmental Psychologists
▫ Research behavior changes occurring across the life
span that are due to maturation and development.
Psychology Careers
• Health Psychologist
▫ Factors in prevention and treatment of illness
▫ Relationships between doctor/patient/family
• Forensic Psychologists
▫ Study topics include criminal behavior, eyewitnesses,
victims, jury selection
• Sport Psychologist
▫ Maximize athletic performance
▫ Benefits of exercise
• Human Factors Psychologist
▫ Making technology user friendly
▫ Works with companies who create new technology
Psychological Perspectives
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Method of classifying a collection of ideas
Also called “schools of thought”
Also called “psychological approaches”
To view behavior from a particular
perspective
Perspectives
• Perspective is a way of viewing phenomena
• Psychology has multiple perspectives
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Neuroscience
Psychoanalytic
Behavioral
Humanistic
Cognitive
Social-Cultural
Evolutionary
Behavior Genetics
Neuroscience Perspective
• Study the physiological mechanisms in the brain
and nervous system that organize and control
behavior
• Looks at the physical causes of behavior
▫ Brain Chemistry/Anatomy
▫ Genetics
▫ Hormones
• Interest in behavior distinguishes biological
psychology from many other biological sciences
Behavioral Perspective
• Focuses on environmental causes
• Behavior comes from learning
▫ Rewards and Punishment, Observational Learning
• Observable behavior is very important
• Not interested in internal world
Cognitive Perspective
• How is knowledge acquired, organized,
remembered, and used to guide behavior ?
• Focuses on internal sentences,
thinking/rationality and processing information
• Behavior is shaped by our way of
thinking/interpreting information
▫ How do we process what is happening around us?
Humanistic Perspective
• Humanistic approach
▫ developed by Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers
▫ behavior reflects innate ‘actualization’
▫ focus on conscious forces and self perception
• All humans are good
• Approach stresses interpersonal relations
• Important concepts: self-esteem, free will, choice, selfdirection – Our behavior is motivated by our desire to
fulfill our needs (Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs)
Psychoanalytic Perspective
• both a method of treatment and a theory of the mind
• behavior reflects combinations of conscious and
unconscious influences
• drives and urges within the unconscious component of
mind influence thought and behavior
▫ Traumatic experience in childhood was repressed to the
unconscious and is shaping our behavior today
• Early childhood experiences shape unconscious
motivations
• Also looks at parental relationships
Socio-cultural
• The study of psychological differences among people
living in different cultural groups
• How are people’s thoughts, feelings and behavior
influenced by their culture?
• Looks at group roles/expectations, along with family
traditions
• Gender Roles/socioeconomic class
• Peer Pressure/Family Pressure/Media Influences
Evolutionary Perspective
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Goes back to Darwin’s theory of natural selection
Genes predispose us to act
Our motive is survival and to pass on genes
All behavior is driven by survival of species
▫ A behavior that we do today was helpful for our
ancestors to survive
Behavior Genetics
• Focus: How behavior is affected by genes and
the environment
• Combines biology and behaviorism
• Emphasis on the importance of both genetic
and environmental factors on behavior
Perspectives Timeline
The Scientific Method of Research
• Definition: Assumptions, attitudes and procedures
that guide researchers in generating questions to
investigate, in generating evidence and in drawing
conclusions
▫ Assume behavior follows consistent patterns with
cause and effect
▫ Attitude of open mindedness and critical thinking
▫ Procedure of steps to follow in order to arrive at the
truth.
• Empirical Evidence – data that is the result of
objective observation, measurement, and
experimentation
• Pseudoscience – a FAKE or false science that makes
claims based on little or no scientific evidence
Problems that can occur:
• Hindsight bias – the tendency to believe after learning
the outcome, that one would have foreseen it.
▫ Common Sense is often wrong!
• Overconfidence – we tend to think we know more than
we do
• Rule of Falsifiability – to scientifically test a claim there
must be identifiable evidence that could prove the claim
false.
• We must have critical thinking when doing research. Do
not blindly accept arguments/conclusions.
▫ Instead, examine the evidence and look for alternative
solutions/explanations
Problems that can occur:
• Barnum Effect
▫ “There’s a sucker born every minute”
▫ Statements can gull people into thinking they have
been accurately assessed by the speaker or test when
in fact the outcome could apply to anyone.
▫ Individuals will give high accuracy ratings to
descriptions of their personality that supposedly are
tailored specifically for them, but are in fact vague and
general enough to apply to a wide range of people
▫ Provide partial explanations for the widespread
acceptance of some beliefs and practices, such as
astrology, fortune telling, and some types of
personality tests
Other Biases
• Confirmation Bias – our tendency to search for information
that confirms our beliefs and ignore those that don’t
• Researcher Bias – the tendency to notice evidence which
supports one particular point of view or hypothesis
• Volunteer Bias – People who volunteer to participate in a
survey are different from those who do not
• Participant Bias – Tendency of research subjects to respond
in certain ways because they know they are being observed.
▫ Do you act the same way in the classroom that you do at home?
▫ Also known as Hawthorne Effect