There will be a quiz next Tuesday, March 10.
Homework from last week is due Thursday.
A new assignment will be given then, due the
Tuesday after spring break.
Electrical Shock
“It’s not the voltage but the current.”
The current is what actually causes a shock - human body has resistance of ~500,000 
with dry skin - ~100  wet! Requires conducting path.
Can cause: (1) burning of tissue by heating, (2) muscle contractions, (3) disruption of
cardiac rhythms.
Current (A)
Effect
0.001
Can be felt
0.005
Is painful
0.010
Causes spasms
0.015
Causes loss of muscle control
0.070
Goes through the heart - fatal after more than
1 second
Charging on Astronaut Space Suit in Auroral Zone: Potentially hazardous situation
– EVA Suit Specified to –40 V
• anodized coating arcing occurred
at –68V in MSFC test
– Possible Sneak-Circuit
• 1 mA safety threshold
Metal waist and neck rings and other metal
portions of the suit make contact with the
sweat soaked ventilation garment providing
possible conducting path for discharge through
astronaut’s thoracic cavity.
Safety
 Surface of spacesuit could charge to high
voltage leading to subsequent discharge.
Display
and
Control
Module
(DCM)
Tether
Discharge to the station through safety tether:
• Tether is a metallic cable - connected to
astronaut via non-conducting (nylon)
housing.
• Station maintained at plasma potential arc path closed when tether gets
wrapped around astronaut.
Mini Work Station
(MWS)
Body Restraint
Tether (BRT)
Radial current leakage in a coaxial cable
I
J(r) 
2rL
V
b

a

I b
E(r)dr   J(r) dr 
ln
2L a
a

b
R
ln
2L a
b
Microscopic model for drift velocity and conduction
Consider electrons as classical particles – no quantum mechanical properties for now
Simplest model – each atom gives one electron to the “pool” of conductive electrons
Conduction electrons in metals move in
random directions with average speeds
v ~ 106 m/s
Overall average velocity (when E  0)
vd  0
When E  0,
qE
v d  a 
 ~ (typically) ~ 104 m/s
m
 ~ 1014 s is the average time between
random collisions with ions, impurities etc
Mean free path l  v ~ 10 8 m
nq 2 
J  nq v d 
E
m
1 nqvd nq 2
 


E
m


Temperature dependence of resistivity
Conductors – quantum mechanics says that at T=0, atoms do not vibrate – no collisions
at all (electrons scatter elastically). At T>0 – atoms vibrate, collisions intensify
Superconductors – there are certain quantum states where there are only elastic
collisions – no energy is transferred to the ions in the crystal
Semiconductor have very different electric properties. As T increases, concentration of
Free electrons goes up dramatically, decreasing resistivity
Most importantly – current strength is not linearly proportional to voltage (diode)
Avalanche – uncontrollable stream of electrons, gaining energy as they
move through the material.
Electromotive Force and Circuits
For a conductor to have a steady current, it must be a closed loop path
If charge goes around a complete circuit and returns to a starting point –
potential energy does not change
As charges move through the circuit they loose their potential energy
due to resistance
“Electromotive force” (emf, ε) is produced by
a battery or a generator and acts as a “charge
pump”. It moves charges uphill and is equal to
the potential difference across such a device
under open-circuit conditions (no current). In
reality, batteries have some internal resistance.
Emf is measured in Volts (so it is not a “force” per say, but potential difference)
Sources of emf – batteries, electric generators, solar cells, fuel cells
Internal Resistance
In ideal situation,   Vab  IR
As the charge flows through the circuit, the potential
rise as it passes through the ideal source is equal to
potential drop via the resistance, Vab  IR

Internal resistance r
Load resistance
R
  IR  Ir
I
Evolution of the
electric potential
in the circuit
with a load

Rr
Voltage between
terminals V    Ir
We measure currents
We measure voltages
with voltmeters
with ammeters
An ideal voltmeter
would have an infinite
resistance
An ideal ammeter
would have a zero
resistance
Example: What are voltmeter
and ammeter readings?
Examples
Bulb B is taken away,
will the bulb A glow differently?
Which bulb glows brighter?
Which bulb glows brighter?
Potential changes around the circuit
Potential gain in the battery
Potential drop at all resistances
In an old, “used-up” battery emf is
nearly the same, but internal resistance
increases enormously
Electrical energy and power
Chemical energy → Electric potential energy
→ Kinetic energy of charge carriers →
Dissipation/Joule heat (heating the resistor
through collisions with its atoms)
As the charge goes through the resistance the
potential energy qV is expended (if both q and V
are positive), but charge does not acquire kinetic
energy (current is constant). Instead, it converted
to heat. The opposite can also happen – if change
in potential energy is positive, the charge acquires
it - battery
For charge Q :
U  QV  heat in a resistor
(or other type s of energy
in devices/ap pliances)
U Q
Power P   V  I  V
t
t
Unit : 1 W  1A 1V
In a resistor : V  I  R
V2
PI R
R
2
Power Output of a Source
Vab    Ir;
P  Vab I   I  I 2r
Maximum power
delivered to load
(load matching) :
PI R
2
dP
0
dR

2
R
(R  r)2
Rr
Power Input to a Source
Current flows “backwards”
Vab    Ir
P  Vab I   I  I 2 R
Rate of conversion of electric energy
into non-electrical energy
Work is being done on, rather than by
the top battery (source of non-electrostatic
force)