Reflection as a
Pedagogical Practice:
Making Experience Educational
David Thornton Moore
New York University
University of Newcastle, 7 October 2014
The Value-Added Problem
Students learn
just by having
the experience
The issue is what
reflection adds to these
Why not leave well enough alone?
Why not throw students out into the world
at the beginning of the semester and reel
them back in at the end?
What can we do to make the process
better?
University of Newcastle, 7 October 2014
Students learn
just by studying
the
phenomenon,
idea or skill
in class
Agenda
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•
•
•
•
•
What is reflection?
How does it happen?: the process
What conditions make it possible?
What does it do?: the outcomes
What makes it difficult?: the challenges
What practices make it better?: the methods
University of Newcastle, 7 October 2014
What Is Reflection?
• When you ask students to “reflect,” what are
you asking them to do?
• Varied terms:
– Reflection-in/on-action (Schon)
– Metacognitive thinking (Fogarty)
– Critical reflection (Mezirow)
– Reflective thinking (Dewey)
– Mindfulness (Langer)
University of Newcastle, 7 October 2014
Conceptions of Reflection
• Dewey (1910): “the active, persistent, and careful
consideration of any belief or supposed form of
knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it
and the further conclusions to which it tends”
• Schön (1983): reflective practice is “a continual
interweaving of thinking and doing”
• Ash and Clayton (2009): “an evidence-based
examination of the sources of and gaps in knowledge
and practice, with the intent to improve both”
University of Newcastle, 7 October 2014
More Conceptions
• Phronesis: process of going beyond theory
(epistemé) and beyond technique (techné) to
practical reasoning; asking not just “what”
and “how” but “why” and “for whom”?
• Critique: Freire’s notion of conscientization, of
exploring why things are the way they are and
not some other way, of connecting experience
to larger questions of social order, power,
justice
University of Newcastle, 7 October 2014
Elements of Reflection
•
•
•
•
Cognitive, intellectual
Affective, emotional
Social, relational, political, ethical
Active engagement
University of Newcastle, 7 October 2014
The Process: What Happens?
• Identify a problem, decide to act on it
• Gather information: search for empirical data
and relevant theories
• Form hypotheses, examine assumptions and
perspectives
• Collect and process more information, ideas
• Form a plan of action, act
University of Newcastle, 7 October 2014
Conditions Making It Possible
• A real problem, challenge, perplexity
• Individual readiness
– Willingness, openmindedness
– Preparation, capacity
– Sense of safety
• Contextual support
–
–
–
–
Performance demands
Autonomy for learner
Access and connection to others
Feedback, processing
University of Newcastle, 7 October 2014
Consequences and Outcomes
• New understandings and insights
– Academic/theoretical knowledge
– Professional and practical knowledge
• Greater effectiveness: academic, professional,
civic, personal
• Transformation of meaning schemes and
perspectives
University of Newcastle, 7 October 2014
Evidence for Importance of
Reflection
• Eyler and Giles (1999): Large national study of
impacts of service-learning on student attitudes
and behaviors
– Found reflection to be one of the key process
variables: that is, the extent and intensity of reflection
constituted a major predictor of learning outcomes
• Hatcher and Bringle (1995): reflection improves
understanding of course content and discipline,
work/service experience, self-understanding,
values
University of Newcastle, 7 October 2014
Basic Principle
• Reflection is a crucial element of the process
of learning from experience. The experience
alone is not sufficient for educational
purposes.
• “When it is well designed, reflection promotes
significant learning, including problem-solving skills,
higher-order reasoning, integrative thinking, goal
clarification, openness to new ideas, ability to adopt
new perspectives, and systemic thinking” (From Ash
and Clayton, p. 27).
University of Newcastle, 7 October 2014
Formulating General Goals
• Identify spacious categories of knowledge and
skill that the student should take from the
experience/reflection process
• For example, in a work-related internship
• Skills building
• Professional development
• Knowledge of the industry
• For example, in a service-learning project
• Personal growth
• Academic enhancement
• Civic learning
University of Newcastle, 7 October 2014
Turning Goals into Objectives
• Express the goals in terms of associated
learning objectives related to their experience
• Might use Bloom’s Taxonomy, e.g.:
– Knowledge: identify, define, order
– Comprehension: explain, describe, restate
– Application: apply, solve, choose
– Analysis: analyze, compare, contrast
– Synthesis: synthesize, develop, propose
– Evaluation: assess, judge, critique
University of Newcastle, 7 October 2014
Profession-Specific Objectives
• Understand the 5 P’s of marketing
• Be able to assess a situation in terms of the
code of ethics in journalism
• Demonstrate the skills required for treating
lower back pain
University of Newcastle, 7 October 2014
Exercise 1: Goals for Reflection
• Purpose: What are you trying to achieve by
means of reflection that your students would
not get simply by means of traditional reading
or lectures, or from the raw experience?
• Process:
– Individuals: write out some goals that address that
question; use whatever terms and formats you
prefer;
– Plenary: reports, discussions
– Are there differences or similarities across professions?
University of Newcastle, 7 October 2014
General Goals for WIL
• Career exploration, preparation, entry
• Application and practice of school-derived
theories, concepts and skills
• Personal and/or professional development
• New modes of thought: critical thinking,
bricolage, praxis, phronesis
• Promoting community development, social
change, justice
University of Newcastle, 7 October 2014
Challenges of WIL Pedagogy
• Student resistance
– Preference for learning practical skills
– Lack of experience with the process
– Concern about judgment, grades
• Inappropriate school contexts
– Tradition of students as recipients of knowledge
– Culture of intellectualization, abstraction
University of Newcastle, 7 October 2014
Challenges: 2
• The translation/integration issue
– The transfer of learning problem
– The integration problem
• The politics problem
University of Newcastle, 7 October 2014
Learning In School and Out
Academic
Experiential
Content/
Knowledge
Stable, authoritative, abstract, Emergent, distributed, practical,
discipline-based, universal,
results-based, contingent,
certain
probabilistic
Style/Mode of
Thinking
Propositional, linear, scientific
Algorithmic, systematic
Actional, narrative, folk-theoretical
Improvisational
Pedagogy
Banking model: master
deposits knowledge in
learner; logical sequence
based on learning process; no
access issues: all info available
to all; frequent assessment of
individual
Learning through legitimate
peripheral participation (LPP) in
community of practice; sequence
based on production process; access
based on need to know; assessment
based on practical consequences
Social
Relations
Individualistic, passive,
teacher-centered; based on
authority of “master”
Collaborative, participatory, learnercentered, competitive; based on
micropolitics of production
University of Newcastle, 7 October 2014
Transfer of Learning Problem
• General point: knowledge acquired in one setting
is not always transferable to another setting
• Issue: under what conditions is it most likely to
transfer? (cf. Moore, 2013)
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–
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Thorough and diverse practice
Explicit abstraction
Active self-monitoring
Arousing mindfulness
Cultural compatibility
University of Newcastle, 7 October 2014
The Politics Problem: Choices
• Conservative: teach professional knowledge and
skills; ensure that students get good jobs
– See True, “InternQube”; cf. Bourdieu on reproduction
• Liberal: teach knowledge/skills, but raise issues of
fairness, access, social improvement
– cf. Sullivan and Rosin, Sweitzer and King
• Radical: teach knowledge/skills, but also practice
critical pedagogy, enabling students to critique
systems of power and domination and act toward
fundamental change
– cf. Kincheloe, Giroux, hooks, Simon
University of Newcastle, 7 October 2014
Principles of Effective Reflection
• Regular, frequent and iterative: students know
it’s coming and that it’s continuous
• Rigorous: intentional, analytical, specific,
evidence-based
• Integrated with course content, disciplinary
knowledge: explicitly explores praxis,
examines overlaps, interactions,
contradictions
University of Newcastle, 7 October 2014
Principles: 2
• Open to alternative perspectives, theories
• Developmental: understands and
accommodates the different phases or forms
of the learner’s experience
– Cf. Sweitzer & King: stages of the internship
• Balances challenge and support
• Assessable and assessed (esp. formatively)
University of Newcastle, 7 October 2014
Reflection Strategies and Devices:
Overview
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•
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Prefield activities
Learning contracts
Journals
Guided assignments
Concurrent seminars
University of Newcastle, 7 October 2014
Reflection Activity Matrix
Eyler, Giles & Schmiede, 1996. A Practitioner’s Guide to Reflection in Service-Learning
• Dimension 1: Kinds of activities
– What: Reading, writing, discussing, doing
– With whom: Alone, with classmates, with partners at site
• Dimension 2: Kinds of goals or purposes
– Academic: understanding concepts, reframing, etc.
– Professional: skill-building, understanding organizations
and industries, wrestling with ethical issues, etc.
– Personal: understanding self, building teamwork skills, etc.
– Civic/social: affecting organizations, communities;
understanding issues, developing strategies
• Dimension 3: Timing
– Before, during, or after the experience
University of Newcastle, 7 October 2014
Constructing a Reflection Map
An Example from Service-Learning
Before Service During Service After Service
Reflect
Alone
Letter to Self
Goal Statement
Reflective
Journal
Individual Paper,
Film, Artwork
Reflect with
Classmates
Hopes & Fears
discussion
List Serve
Critical Incident
Team
Presentation
Reflect with
External
Partners
Create Contact
Needs
Assessment
Presentations to
“Lessons
Learned” on-site community
debriefing
partner
From: Eyler, J. (2001). Creating your reflection map. In M. Canada (Ed.) Service-learning:
Practical advice and models. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass New Directions for Higher
Education Series # 114, 35-43
University of Newcastle, 7 October 2014
Pre-field Activity
• What it is: work done to encourage students to think
about their upcoming activities before they happen
• What it does:
– Helps students identify, examine, and critique preexisting
assumptions, values, expectations, skills and knowledge;
clarify the baseline
– Gets students up to speed on various skills and knowledge
that will strengthen their engagement with the experience
• Forms:
– Pre-field seminars, discussions, workshops, trainings
– Application requirements: reading/writing assignments:
e.g., “hopes and fears” essay
University of Newcastle, 7 October 2014
Learning Contract
• What it is: a document produced by the student in
consultation with the school and the setting that stipulates
– What the student will do: the job; hours, etc.; what the setting
will provide: supervision, space, etc.
– What the student will learn: academic, professional, personal
civic/social goals
• What it does:
– Establishes agreement and accountability among three parties
about the nature and conduct of the experience
– Encourages the student to think rigorously about what she’s
getting into, what she expects, what she wants to learn
• Forms: some examples of learning contract
University of Newcastle, 7 October 2014
The Journal
• What it is: a written record of the experience in which the
student, to varying extents
– Describes and interprets the experience
– Describes her reactions to it and learning from it
– Analyzes events, phenomena, processes, relationships,
organizational structures, practices, and dynamics, larger social,
political and ethical issues; connects those analyses to academic
and professional ideas
• What it does
– Organizes, expresses, and elaborates student’s experience
– Metacognitive function: provides opportunity for student to
think about thinking, learning, doing
– Fosters critical thinking and transfer of learning
University of Newcastle, 7 October 2014
The Journal: Some Types
• Log: straightforward record of activities
• Unstructured: informal, idiosyncratic reflection about
learning (knowledge, skill, personal growth, career
development)
• Key phrase: identification and explanation of key terms
overheard at setting
• Double entry: (a) record of observations and reactions;
(b) effort to connect to academic ideas
• Critical incident: unpack a specific event for meaning
• Self-ethnography: journal as anthropological field
notes (straight observations -> first-cut interpretations
and explanations -> deeper analyses)
University of Newcastle, 7 October 2014
Guided Assignments (1)
• What they are: various kinds of special directions
given to the student by the instructor, whether
individually or in a class
• What they do: focus student’s attention on
aspects of the experience that she might not
otherwise see from the worker perspective
• Examples:
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Interview a sample of coworkers about X
Produce a training manual for your position
Construct an organization chart or process flow chart
Write a proposal for a new system for doing Y
University of Newcastle, 7 October 2014
Guided Assignments (2)
• Design a simulation showing how the setting
works
• Produce an artistic representation of the issues
faced in the setting: dance, video, theater, etc.
• Organize a presentation in which student offers
ideas to members of the organization or
community
• Sponsor a community meeting in which student
facilitates discussion among residents about an
issue
University of Newcastle, 7 October 2014
Concurrent Seminar
• What it is: a regularly-meeting class in which students
explore, analyze, and critique their field experiences during
the period when they are in the field
• What it does:
– Offers a group of students the chance to share experiences and
ideas
– Connects the experience explicitly to academic and professional
theories and practices
• Examples:
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Service-learning courses
Cooperative education seminars
Field study classes
Participatory Action Research (PAR) projects
University of Newcastle, 7 October 2014
Exercise 2: Planning Reflection
• Phase 1: Set up small groups:
– Prefield
– journals and assignments
– concurrent seminar
• Phase 2: Groups work on developing plans (15
mins)
• Phase 3: Groups report plans to plenary (10
mins)
University of Newcastle, 7 October 2014
Group Work
• Identify Goals: what do you want your
students to learn?
• Design: what specific practices, methods,
formats would you use to help them learn
those things through that form of reflection?
• What challenges and limitations do you face?
• Next steps: what can you do to move this
planning ahead at your school?
University of Newcastle, 7 October 2014
Final Plenary
• Groups report out: goals, plans, challenges
• Discussion of strengths and weaknesses,
critiques and suggestions, questions and
insights
• Discuss action plans: what to do next
University of Newcastle, 7 October 2014
Wrap-Up
• Feedback on the workshop
– Did you accomplish your personal and
professional goals?
– What are the loose ends, the gaps, the remaining
challenges? Comments, questions?
University of Newcastle, 7 October 2014