Land Use
Grasslands and Rangelands
National Parks and Reserves
MANAGING AND SUSTAINING
GRASSLANDS
• Almost half of the world’s livestock graze on
natural grasslands (rangelands) and managed
grasslands (pastures).
• We can sustain rangeland productivity by
controlling the number and distribution of
livestock and by restoring degraded rangeland.
MANAGING AND SUSTAINING
GRASSLANDS
• Overgrazing (left)
occurs when too
many animals graze
for too long and
exceed carrying
capacity of a
grassland area.
Figure 10-21
MANAGING AND SUSTAINING
GRASSLANDS
• Example of restored area along the San Pedro
River in Arizona after 10 years of banning
grazing and off-road vehicles. See the effects of
creating a riparian zone
Figure 10-22
Case Study: Grazing and Urban
Development in the American West
• Ranchers, ecologists, and environmentalists are
joining together to preserve the grasslands on
cattle ranches.
– Paying ranchers conservation easements (barring
future owners from development).
– Pressuring government to zone the land to prevent
development of ecologically sensitive areas.
Management of the American West
• Overexploitation of resources caused great
damage to the American West
– Poor farming practices, overgrazing,
farming arid lands
• John Wesley Powell in the late 1800s called for
agencies to base management on science
– Farming Western lands had to
account for arid conditions
– His ideas were ignored, contributing
to failures such as the Dust Bowl of
the 1930s
Parks and reserves
• Reasons for establishing parks and reserves include:
– Monumentalism = preserving areas with enormous,
beautiful or unusual features, such as the Grand Canyon
– Offer recreational value to tourists, hikers, fishers, hunters
and others
– Protect areas with utilitarian benefits, such as clean
drinking water
– Use sites that are otherwise economically not valuable
and are therefore easy to protect
– Preservation of biodiversity
Federal parks and reserves began in
the U.S.
• National parks = public lands
protected from resource
extraction and development
– Open to nature
appreciation and
recreation
– Yellowstone National Park
was established in 1872
• The Antiquities Act of 1906
– The president can declare
selected public lands as
national monuments
The National Park Service (NPS)
• Created in 1916 to administer parks and
monuments
– 401 sites (84 million acres)
– Includes national historic sites, national recreation
areas, national wild and scenic rivers
– 273.6 million visitors in 2013
– 58 National Parks
– Overseen by the Department of the Interior
National Wildlife Refuges
• Begun in 1903 by President Theodore Roosevelt
• 150 Million acres of land and water in 560 land refuge
sites
• U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service administers refuges
– Management ranges from preservation to manipulation
– Wildlife havens
– Allows hunting, fishing, wildlife observation,
photography, education
Wilderness areas
• Wilderness areas = area is off-limits
to development of any kind
– Open to the public for hiking,
nature study, etc.
– Must have minimal impact
on the land
– Necessary to ensure that
humans don’t occupy and
modify all natural areas
• Established within federal lands
– Overseen by the agencies
that administer those areas
Not everyone supports land set-asides
• Restriction of activities in wilderness areas
generated opposition to U.S. land protection
policies
– Some western states want resource extraction and
development
• The wise-use movement = a coalition of
individuals and industries that oppose
environmental protection
– Protecting private property, transferring federal lands
to state or private hands, promoting motorized
recreation on public lands
– Farmers, ranchers, loggers, mineral and fossil fuel
industries
Wilderness protection has been
weakened
• President George W. Bush weakened wilderness
protection
– Federal agencies have shifted policies and enforcement
– Away from preservation and conservation
– Toward recreation and resource extraction
Nonfederal entities also protect land
• Each U.S. state and Canadian province has
agencies that manage resources
– So do counties and municipalities
• Land trusts = local or regional organizations that
purchase land to protect it
– The Nature Conservancy is the world’s largest land
trust
– Trusts protect (47 million acres)
– Jackson Hole, Wyoming is protected by a land trust
Parks and reserves are increasing
internationally
• Many nations have established national parks
– Benefit from ecotourism
– Protected areas now cover 9.6% of the world’s land area
• Parks do not always receive necessary funding
– Paper parks = Areas protected on paper but not in reality
– World heritage sites = protected areas that fall under
national sovereignty but are designated or managed by
the United Nations
• 1007 sites across 163 countries
Transboundary and peace parks
• Transboundary park = an area of protected land
overlapping national borders
– For example, Waterton-Glacier National Parks in the U.S.
and Canada
• Peace parks = transboundary reserves that help ease
tensions by acting as buffers between nations
• Biosphere reserves = land with exceptional
biodiversity
– Couple preservation with sustainable development
Biosphere reserves have several zones
• This can be a win-win situation for everyone
Habitat fragmentation threatens
species
• Contiguous habitat is chopped into
small pieces
– Species suffer
The SLOSS dilemma
• Which is better to protect species?
– A Single Large Or Several Small reserves?
– Depends on the species: tigers vs. insects
• Corridors = protected land that allows animals to
travel between islands of protected habitat
– Animals get more resources
– Enables gene flow between populations
NATIONAL PARKS
• Countries have established more than 1,842
national parks, but most are threatened by
human activities.
– Local people invade park for wood, cropland, and
other natural resources.
– Loggers, miners, and wildlife poachers also deplete
natural resources.
– Many are too small to sustain large-animal species.
– Many suffer from invasive species.
Case Study: Stresses on U.S. National
Parks
• Overused due to
popularity.
• Inholdings (private
ownership) within
parks threaten natural
resources.
• Air pollution.
Figure 10-23
• Suggestions for
sustaining and
expanding the
national park
system in the U.S.
Figure 10-24
NATURE RESERVES
• Ecologists call for protecting more land to help
sustain biodiversity, but powerful economic
and political interests oppose doing this.
– Currently 12% of earth’s land area is protected.
– Only 5% is strictly protected from harmful human
activities.
– Conservation biologists call for full protection of
at least 20% of earth’s land area representing
multiple examples of all biomes.
NATURE RESERVES
• Large and medium-sized reserves with buffer
zones help protect biodiversity and can be
connected by corridors.
➢ Costa
Rica has
consolidated its parks
and reserves into 8
megareserves
designed to sustain
80% if its biodiversity.
Figure 10-10B
NATURE RESERVES
• A model biosphere
reserve that contains
a protected inner
core surrounded by
two buffer zones that
people can use for
multiple use.
Figure 10-25
NATURE RESERVES
• We can prevent or slow down losses of
biodiversity by concentrating efforts on
protecting global hot spots where significant
biodiversity is under immediate threat.
• Conservation biologists are helping people in
communities find ways to sustain local
biodiversity while providing local economic
income.
NATURE RESERVES
• Geographic Information System (GIS) mapping
can be used to understand and manage
ecosystems.
– Identify areas to establish and connect nature
reserves in large ecoregions to prevent
fragmentation.
– Developers can use GIS to design housing
developments with the least environmental
impact.
NATURE RESERVES
• Wilderness is land legally set aside in a large
enough area to prevent or minimize harm
from human activities.
• Only a small percentage of the land area of
the United States has been protected as
wilderness.
Agriculture: Problems &
Solutions
Monoculture, Slash & Burn Farming
Intercropping,
Polyculture, Crop
Rotation &
Agroforestry
Plowing/Tilling & Row Crops
Contour Plowing, Terracing, No-Till
Spray/Furrow Irrigation, Salinization,
Waterlogging
Drip irrigation, Hydroponics, GMO
drought-tolerant crops
Mechanization, CAFOs, “Energy Subsidy”
• Food travels ~ 2,000 km to reach your plate
Local & Unprocessed foods, Less Meat
Pesticide persistence; pesticide
treadmill; collateral damage
• Bees dying from use of neonicotinoids
IPM (Integrated
Pest Management)
& GMOs
Synthetic Fertilizer Production;
Overapplication/runoff (eutrophication)
Organic Fertilizer, Composting, GMOs
Western Diet, “Lifestyle Diseases”
White Meat, Mediterranean Diet,
Paleo Diet, Antibiotic-free meat
Marine Fisheries Overview
by
Wynn W. Cudmore, Ph.D.
Northwest Center for Sustainable Resources
DUE # 0757239
This project supported in part by the National Science Foundation.
Opinions expressed are those of the authors and
not necessarily those of the Foundation.
Summary
• Marine fisheries are an important biological and
cultural resource
• Significant numbers of stocks are overexploited or
depleted
• Overfishing is a major cause for the decline of marine
fisheries
• Traditional fisheries management has not resulted in
sustainable fisheries
• New approaches include both market-based and
ecosystem-based solutions
NOAA Photo Library / OAR/National Undersea Research Program (NURP); Alaska Department of Fish and Game
What is a fishery?
• The resource (fish species)
• The habitat
• The people involved
NOAA Photo Library –Kip Evans
ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies / Marine Photobank
NOAA Photo Library
Tsukiji Fish Market
Tokyo, Japan
Wikipedia
Most fish are harvested within 200 miles of
shore
• Upwellings
• Continental shelves
• Estuaries
NEFSC (NOAA)
NASA, MODIS Rapid Response Team
NCSR et. al.
Status of Marine Fisheries
• In 2004, 52% of world fish stocks were
fully exploited, 25% were overexploited
or depleted
• Large predatory fish have declined
globally by 90%
• At least 42% of U.S. fisheries are
being overexploited
UNFAO– Antonio Pais
Fisheries Collapses
Atlantic cod
Atlantic salmon
Pacific sardine
Haddock
Atlantic halibut
Peruvian anchovy
Collapse of the Atlantic Cod Fishery off Newfoundland
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
Causes for Marine Fishery Declines
• Overfishing
The rate of fish mortality (harvest plus
bycatch) exceeds the natural rate
of replacement.
NOAA Photo Library – Teobaldo Dioses
Causes for Marine Fishery Declines
• Overfishing
• Highly efficient technology
Fishing vessels and gear
Radar and sonar
Electronic navigation
Aircraft with infrared
sensors
Electronic image intensifiers
NOAA Photo Library - C. Oritz Rojas
Causes for Marine Fishery Declines
• Overfishing
• Highly efficient technology
• Bycatch
The capture of non-target
fish or other marine animals
in fishing gear
NOAA Photo Library
Causes for Marine Fishery Declines
•
•
•
•
Overfishing
Highly efficient technology
Bycatch
Overcapacity
Fishing fleets are larger
than necessary to harvest
the allowable catch
Northeast Fisheries Science Center
Community and ecosystem-level impacts
of fishery declines
•
•
•
•
Fishing down the food web
Habitat degradation
Trophic cascades
Changes in life history traits
Fishing Down the Food Web
The serial harvest of progressively lower
trophic levels
Trophic
Level
Time
Concept : Daniel Pauly; Artist: Aque Atanacio
Habitat Degradation:
the impact of fishing gear
Before trawling
After trawling
Deep-sea Oculina coral reefs off Florida's Atlantic Coast
Dr. R. Grant Gilmore, Dynamac Corporation
Lance Horn, National Undersea Research
Center/University of North Carolina at Wilmington
Changes in life history traits
• Females respond to fishing pressure by
spawning at an earlier age
• Removal of large females
reduces reproductive
potential
NOAA Fisheries
Summary of Community/Ecosystem Effects
of Fishing
Pew Center on Global Climate Change
Why are fishery declines
allowed to occur?
“Overfishing occurs because all of the economic incentives are in place for it to
occur.”
Iudicello, et al., 1999
•
•
•
•
Government subsidies
Increasing demand
Shifting baselines
Lack of adequate fisheries data
Government subsidies
The global fishing fleet spends $50 billion more than it makes
every year.
UN Food and Agriculture Organization
Increasing demand for seafood
From 1961 to 2003 total fish consumption in China increased from
3.2 million tons to 25.4 million tons
Artwork © Ray Troll
Shifting Baselines
“Fishing has a short memory. If you see twice as many fish as you’ve seen in
the last 10 years, it’s still twice as much of not very much.”
Teri Frady - NMFS
Post card from Census of Marine Life - History of Marine Animal Populations – Glenn Jones
Lack of Adequate Fisheries Data
Effective management
requires collection and
interpretation of basic
biological information
on fish species and
marine ecosystems
© Pete Naylor, uwphoto.geckoworks.com 2005 / Marine Photobank
Traditional fisheries management
(“Single-species approach” – failed)
•
•
•
•
Quotas (Total Allowable Catches)
Gear restrictions
Maximum sustainable yield
Closures
Gear Restrictions
(ex: mesh size limits on nets)
NOAA Fisheries
NCSR
Closures – an example
Areas closed in 1994
to any fishing gear
capable of catching
Atlantic cod
NOAA Fisheries
Sea scallops on Georges Bank
Area Closed
NOAA Fisheries – Northeast Fisheries Science Center
NOAA Fisheries - Chantell Royer
Market-based Solutions
•
•
•
•
•
•
Certification
Consumer-based solutions
Purchase of fishing rights
Aquaculture
Increased use of underutilized species
Reduce government subsidies
Certification of Seafood
Marine Stewardship Council (MSC)
52 fisheries certified:
■ North
Sea herring
■ Australian mackerel
■ Oregon Pink Shrimp
■ Baja California red
rock lobster
MSC / Marine Photobank
Consumer-based solutions
www.blueocean.org/fishphone.index.html
Purchase of fishing rights
Governments may
buy out willing
fishing permit
holders to reduce
fishing effort
NOAA Fisheries - Robert Brigham
Aquaculture
Fish farming has the
potential to reduce the
pressure on wildcaught fish
Farmed organisms
that do not consume
fish meal are most
sustainable
NOAA Photo Library – Courtesy of UNFAO, Danilo Cedrone
Increased use and marketing of
underutilized species
• Silver hake = “whiting”
• Slimeheads = “orange roughy”
• Patagonian toothfish = “Chilean sea bass”
• Deep sea angler = “monkfish”
Sascha Regmann / Project Blue Sea / Marine Photobank (top image)
© Gavin Parsons / www.gavinparsons.co.uk / Marine Photobank (bottom image)
Reduce government subsidies
Reduction and eventual elimination of
government subsidies allows price to be
a more reliable indicator of scarcity.
Ecosystem-based Fishery
Management
Attempts to sustain healthy marine ecosystems
and the fisheries they support
•
•
•
•
Reduce bycatch
Marine reserves
Catch share programs
Ecologically sustainable yield
Reduce bycatch
Turtle excluder device on shrimp boat in Gulf of Mexico
NOAA Photo Library / William B. Folsom, NMFS
Marine Reserves
Extractive activities (fishing, mining, oil drilling) are prohibited in marine reserves
Catch Share Programs
Limited Access Privilege Programs – LAPPs
Individual Transferable
Quotas (ITQs) can be
bought and sold
Bluefin tuna harvest in Spain
UNFAO / NOAA Photo Library / Jose Cort
The Future of Marine Fisheries
“An ecosystem-based approach is founded
on the notion that robust fisheries depend on
healthy marine ecosystems…… Ideally,
ecosystem-based fishery management would
shift the burden of proof that fishing would
not take place unless it could be shown not to
harm key components of the ecosystem.”
Pikitch, et al. 2004
NOAA Photo Library / Passage Productions
Some good news for a change?
COMPASS, E. Neeley