Inclusion is an umbrella that keeps us dry when the downpours of life occur."
Linda S. Wallace

• Updates-
• Today: Quiz #1 (it will be available until Friday on D2L)
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Next week- VIRTUAL CLASS (no class at PSU)
• Article Review & PowerPoint presentation due (submit on dropbox)
Complete Discussion Questions
Web-based content will be available
• April 28 (Sam Sennott will be teaching)
• Quiz #2 (on D2L)
• Discussion Questions Due
• Review
• Discussion
• Systematic Instruction & Prompting

• Goals & Objectives Assignment
• -Partner and review

1. Define the instructional universe (IU).--How?
-Person-Centered Planning/ File Review/ IEP
2. Define the range of relevant stimulus & response variation within that IU.—
How?
-Task Analysis
3. Select examples for the IU for use in teaching and probe testing.— How?
Positive & Negative Examples
4. Sequence teaching examples.--How?
Juxtapose maximally different, then minimally different examples.
5. Teach the examples.--How?
Using Antecedent & Consequence Strategies
6. Test with non-trained probe examples— How?

Self-determination
Independence, Interdependence, Opportunities to Act
-e.g., Goal setting, choice-making, self-management
Assistive Technology
Operational Competence
Multi-modal expression e.g., How to use devices, low & hi tech options
Personal Relevance
Related to individual needs e.g., social skills, daily living, vocational
Pivotal Skills
Important to learning across content areas e.g., selecting from a field of 4, using asking
/answering “Wh” questions, sequencing events, using graphic organizers
Qualities of a Well-Designed Standards-Based IEP
(modified from Wakeman et al., 2010)

COMPETING PATHWAYS
BEHAVIOR SUPPORT
PLANNING
Neutralize/ eliminate setting events
Add relevant
& remove irrelevant triggers
Sound
Instructional
Design
Teach alternative that is more efficient
Sound
Instructional
Delivery
Add effective &
& remove ineffective reinforcers
Effective Response to Student behavior

ntecedent:
Natural Cue that triggers
[or should trigger]….
Antecedent Strategies
-Time Delay
-Prompting
-Pre-correction
-Modeling
Instructional Design
-Range of Responses
-Range of Examples
-Positive Examples
-Negative Examples
-Minimally Different
-Maximally Different onsequence:
Natural outcome that consistently occurs after behavior
Consequence Strategies
-Differential
Reinforcement
-Shaping
-Error Correction

• http://functionalworksample.pbworks.com/w
/file/49653035/Instructional%20Plan%20Exa mple%20for%20Work%20Sample.pdf

1. Make a link to the Common Core State
Standard (be able to name the CCSS)
2. Students will write / rewrite one annual IEP goal for a student :
• Date
• Condition
• Student/Learner
• Behavior
• Criteria
• Evaluation procedure

• These principles guide educators in developing instructional plans that have the greatest likelihood of student learning:
1.
2.
Teaching meaningful and functional skills,
Facilitating attention to relevant stimuli,
3.
4.
Providing frequent opportunities to respond
Providing a positive learning environment
Halle et al., 2004 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JA96Fba-WHk

• Evidence-based Practices in Schools
• AIM Modules
– Chaining
– Differential Reinforcement
– Extinction

Promoting:
– Independence
• Goal-setting, Choice-making, Problem-solving, Selfinstruction, etc.
– Inter-dependence
• Advocacy, Social Capital
– Opportunities & Environments to Act
• Dignity of Risk, Social Inclusion

• Teaching Personal Care Skills
– Importance, Relation between Personal Care &
Self-Determination, Tactics for teaching, Selfmanagement
– Eating/Meal-time skills
– Toileting
– Dressing
• Teaching Leisure & Recreation Skills

 Eating
 Take food from spoon and swallow
 Chew food
 Choose between two food items
 Express desire to eat
 Feed self finger foods
 Use a napkin
 Use a spoon
 Eat a sandwich
 Pace eating (avoid stuffing mouth)
 Spear with a fork
 Eat without spilling

• Swallow from a cup held by someone
• Choose between two drinks
• Hold own glass to drink
• Drink from a soda can
• Drink from a mug
• Drink from a water fountain
• Drink through a straw

• Choose between two clothing options
• Select outfit for the day
• Choose accessories for personal style
• Move arms and lift legs to help in dressing
• Communicate when help is needed in dressing
• Pull down pants in restroom
• Take off clothing (shoes, socks, jacket, shirt, pants, etc.)
• Get dressed (button, snap, zip, velcro)

• Ask for help with washing hands or face
• Choose between two types of soap
• Determine whether water is comfortable temperature
• Participate in washing: moving hands to water, move face on cloth.
• Grasp/release paper towel in trash
• Wash own hands when told
• Initiate washing hands and face

 Ask for help with combing/styling hair
 Comb/style own hair
 Care for nails
 Use makeup
 Leave restroom groomed for public:
 Clothing straight
 Zippers & fasteners closed
 Hair neat
 Hands washed
 Face clean
 Make up on neatly

 Ask:
 Will the student work towards using toilet based on internal cues?
 Will student use toilet on a specific time schedule?
 Will student use: incontinence products (pull-ups); catheterization, other?
 Initiation
 Student will take care of needs without prompting?
 Prompted ?
 Ask for help?
 Prompted to ask for help?
 Adult will initiate toileting?

 Perform all steps independently?
 Prompted with goal of independence?
 Interactive; student will perform some steps without prompts?
 Interactive; student will be prompted to perform some steps?
 Accident management
 Student will manage? Prompted to manage? Perform some steps? Adult provide all cleanup?

Stimulus Control
Prompting
Fading
Shaping
Chaining

1. Define the Instructional Universe
2. Define the Range of Relevant Stimulus and
Response Variation
3. Select Examples for Teaching & Testing
4. Sequencing Teaching Examples
5. Teaching the Examples
6. Testing with Non-trained Probe Examples

1. Define the instructional universe (IU).--How?
-Person-Centered Planning/ File Review/ IEP
2. Define the range of relevant stimulus & response variation within that IU.—
How?
-Task Analysis
3. Select examples for the IU for use in teaching and probe testing.— How?
Positive & Negative Examples
4. Sequence teaching examples.--How?
Juxtapose maximally different, then minimally different examples.
5. Teach the examples.--How?
Using Antecedent & Consequence Strategies
6. Test with non-trained probe examples— How?

• Stimulus control refers to change in the likelihood of a response when a stimulus is presented.
• The stimulus is a signal that if the response is performed, a predictable outcome (consequence) is likely.
• If a person responds one way in the presence of a stimulus and another in its absence, than that stimulus is said to “control” behavior.
• A traffic light is an example

• Stimulus control refers to change in the likelihood of a response when a stimulus is presented.
• The stimulus is a signal that if the response is performed, a predictable outcome (consequence) is likely.
• If a person responds one way in the presence of a stimulus and another in its absence, than that stimulus is said to
“control” behavior.
• A traffic light is an example
Antecedent/Stimulu s:
Green Light
Behavior:
Drive or walk across the street

• For any skill, teach a) what, b) when, c) why.
• What = the new response (skill)
• When = the stimulus that signals when to perform the new response
• Why = what is the likely consequence (reward)

• Define the naturally occurring pattern
• Setting Event -> Stimulus -> Response -> Consequence
• Define what you will “add” to assist learning.
• Setting Event -> Stimulus -> Response -> Consequence
Prompt Extra Reward or Correction

For each example define a response and its controlling stimulus
• Reading
• Math
• Social initiations
• Joining a playground game
• Getting help from an adult
• Getting a cookie at snack
• Following the instruction to “line up”

• Jeremiah’s team (Mom, Dad, Jamal, etc.) decided that they wanted him to become independent at putting on his clothing
(socks, shoes, shirt, pants):
• 1. In school (P.E. and other activities).
• 2. Activities at home with family members.
• 3. Activities in the community (swimming, soccer, tennis).

• Range of stimulus (Antecedent) variation
• 1. Activities at school
• What can vary? Times of day, activities (difficulty, interest, setting) peers, staff
• 2. Activities at home
• What can vary? Activity (interest, chore, recreational), Parent home
• 3. Activities in community? Soccer, Tennis, coaches, peers, etc.
• Range of behavior (putting on clothes) variation
• Uses adaptive equipment (for help with buttons)
• Putting on shirt
• Putting on pants
• Putting on shoes

• Positive examples of successfully putting on clothes
• 1. Putting arms & head through correct holes on shirt
• 2. Putting on socks
• 3. Putting on correct shoe(s)- Left and Right
• 4. Putting on pants with the zipper in the front
• Negative examples of putting on clothes
• 1. Putting arm and/or head in wrong holes (and/or unbuttoned)
• 2. Socks on inside/out
• 3. Incorrect shoe on foot
• 4. Pants on backwards (and/or unzipped or unbuttoned)

• May teach with the following sequence:
• Positive example #1: Successfully putting head through correct hole in shirt.
• Positive example #1: Successfully putting arms in correct holes in shirt.
• Negative example #1: Arm in hole where head should go.
• Negative example #1: Shirt on backwards…
• Etc……

• Use prompts and reinforcers to improve performance.
• Example for Jeremiah
• Provide modifications for student- including hook for buttons and zippers.
• Visual prompts or markings on clothes for where head goes, arm goes
• Video modeling of this showing from his point of view
• Use chaining to teach all skills together
• Discrete Trial Training to teach individual skills: identifying where head goes, identifying where arm goes

Cue
(opportunity to respond)
FR Environment provides a natural cue
EX Student’s bus arrives and door opens.
Other students get off bus
Response/
Behavior
Student does each step needed to complete the activity
S gets off bus, goes in the correct direction, enters building, goes to class, puts away materials
Consequence
Student gets natural outcome of activity
Student is now inside with other students and has inviting activities to do. Teacher offers praise
Pause
Student focuses on next routine
Student transitions to next routine

ntecedent:
Natural Cue that triggers
[or should trigger]….
Antecedent Strategies
-Time Delay
-Prompting
-Pre-correction
-Modeling
Instructional Design
-Range of Responses
-Range of Examples
-Positive Examples
-Negative Examples
-Minimally Different
-Maximally Different onsequence:
Natural outcome that consistently occurs after behavior
Consequence Strategies
-Differential
Reinforcement
-Shaping
-Error Correction

• After success with multiple stimuli in trained situations, test within an un-trained situation (example: tennis [if not used in training] OR different restroom [if not used in training])

• Student has difficulty eating his lunch due to motor skills issues (student uses a motorized wheel chair and has a tray on his wheel chair where he puts his plate, utensils, etc.)
• Team wants him to be able to:
• Acquire his utensils (spork, other utensils??)
• Acquire his lunch (including main dish, side, and drink)
• Open his drink (open milk carton and/or use straw)
• Use his fork to spear his food
• Use napkin to clean his face
• Throw away food and clean his tray

• Teaching is the process of arranging instructional stimuli that result in behavior change for the learner.
• Teaching requires the establishment of a learning context.
•
•
Teaching requires behavior change on the part of the learner.
Teaching students to respond to specific stimuli is a teacher’s basic job.

Setting event Antecedent/
Stimulus
Response/
Behavior
Consequence

• Stimulus Control
• Positive Reinforcement
• Negative Reinforcement
• Positive Punishment
• Negative Punishment
• Extinction
• Transfer
• Generalization
• Maintenance
• http://fxinstructionaldesign.pbworks.com/w/page/4988
6075/Behavioral%20Principles

• Stimulus control refers to change in the likelihood of a response when a stimulus is presented.
• The stimulus is a signal that if the response is performed, a predictable outcome (consequence) is likely.
• If a person responds one way in the presence of a stimulus and another in its absence, than that stimulus is said to “control” behavior.
• A traffic light is an example
Antecedent/Stimul us:
Green Light
Behavior:
Drive or walk across the street

• Define the naturally occurring pattern
• Setting Event -> Stimulus -> Response -> Consequence
• Define what you will “add” to assist learning.
• Setting Event -> Stimulus -> Response -> Consequence
Prompt Extra Reward or Correction

ntecedent:
Natural Cue that triggers
[or should trigger]….
Antecedent Strategies
-Time Delay
-Prompting
-Pre-correction
-Modeling
Instructional Design
-Range of Responses
-Range of Examples
-Positive Examples
-Negative Examples
-Minimally Different
-Maximally Different onsequence:
Natural outcome that consistently occurs after behavior
Consequence Strategies
-Differential
Reinforcement
-Shaping
-Error Correction

• 1 st grader says “went” in the presence of a flashcard with the letters W-E-N-T, which results in teacher praise.
• 1 st grader says “went” in the presence of the letters C-A-
M-E, which does not result in teacher praise.

For each example define a response and its controlling stimulus
• Reading
• Math
• Social initiations
• Joining a playground game
• Getting help from an adult
• Getting a cookie at snack
• Following the instruction to “line up”

(Note what you ADD to the natural context)
• Begin by pretest, then defining (a) the new response[R], (b) the stimulus that should control the response[S1], and (c) the natural reward [Sr+].
• Pretest to document absence of Sd  R
• Present the stimulus (S1)
•
•
•
Prompt the new response (R)
Deliver a reward (Sr+) + extra reward
Withhold the reward when either
•
R1 occurs when S1 has not be presented, or
• R1 does not occur when S1 is presented.

• For any skill, teach a) what, b) when, c) why.
• What = the new response (skill)
• When = the stimulus that signals when to perform the new response
• Why = what is the likely consequence (reward)

Target Response/Controlling Stimulus
•
• T ---> /t/ ( b --> /b/, /d/ )
--> “triangle” ( )
• Child cries --> parent picks up and comforts
• Smile --> social initiation
• Student raises hand -> teacher calls on student

• Teach saying “thank you” when someone gives you something.
•
•
• Test to determine if skill exists
Identify “pre-requisites”
Define “natural” behavioral elements
• receive -> “thank you” --> “you’re welcome”
• What do you add to teach
• Add prompt (“say thank you”)
• Add reward (“excellent job saying thank you”)
•
• Multiple opportunities to practice (fade extras)
Test to determine if skill is learned

Teaching New Behaviors can be Thought of as
Developing Stimulus Control
• Errorless Learning
• Prompts and Cues
• Response Shaping
• Chaining

•
•
Train discrimination without errors (shaping stimulus control)
•
•
•
•
Refined form of decreasing prompts
Alterations of features of the stimulus (Sd) OR Stimulus property
Student’s name on white card other student’s name on black card.
Card gradually darkened.
No incorrect choices and discriminated on relevant stimulus properties.
•
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h5_zJIm1B_k http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8sYNcSP5VZ0

Definition
• Using prompts to preclude a student from making an incorrect response
Use
• when students are not learning effectively and efficiently with other procedures
Rationale
1 effective
2 positive teacher/student interaction
3 fewer inappropriate social behaviors
4 students learn little from repeated errors
SUCCESS BEGETS SUCCESS AND FAILURE BEGETS FAILURE

• When errors occur, correct immediately with minimal feedback
• Provide a second opportunity to respond correctly
• Reinforce (reward) immediately!
• Must be explicit / specific.

• Acquisition
• (build initial stimulus control)
• Fluency
• (develop speed, accuracy)
• Maintenance
• (durability of skill across time)
• Generalization
• (performance of behavior under appropriate, non-trained conditions)

• Acquisition: new at task, instruction crucial, student not accurate
• Fluency: accurate and increase in speed
• Maintenance: skills retained over time
• Generalization: skill in new contexts (discriminate)
• Adaptation: modify skill for new situation

• Direct instruction
•
•
Systematic teaching of target skills: reading, math, socialbehavioral skills
MODEL  LEAD  TEST

• Define the naturally occurring pattern
• Setting Event -> Stimulus -> Response -> Consequence
• Define what you will “add” to assist learning.
• Setting Event -> Stimulus -> Response -> Consequence
Prompt Extra Reward or Correction

• Defined:
• Any antecedent stimulus ADDED to the presentation that increases the likelihood of correct responding.
• Examples:
• Verbal, gesture, physical, embedded (visual, auditory)
• Modeling
• Precorrection

• Increases likelihood of correct responding
• Focuses attention on relevant features of task (Sd)
• Ease of delivery
• Ease of removal across trials
• Good prompts are determined by the demands of the task AND the presenting skills of the learner.
• As weak as possible (least intrusive)
• Should be faded as rapidly as possible

• Time Delay
• Constant (CTD; Miracle et al., 2001)
• Progressive (Wolery et al., 1992)
• Prompting Systems
• Gestural, verbal, pre-recorded auditory prompts, pictorial prompts, model prompts, physical prompts, mixed prompts
• System of Least Prompts (or least-to-most prompting
• Most-to-Least Prompts

•
•
Time delay:
•
• begin with a prompt that works and then increase the DELAY between presentation of the target stimulus and the added prompt fixed
Progressive
•
•
•
Sd +Prompt  response
Sd ….Prompt  response
Sd ….response

Commonly used to teach single, discrete behaviors such as sight words and naming objects :
•
•
Attention Cue: “Get Ready”
Task Direction: target stimulus + “read this”
• Delay period: Pause 4 to 5 seconds
•
•
Effective Prompt: verbal, gestural, etc.
• Prompt must have worked in the past/ know that prompt works
Ex: Teacher reading the sign followed by student imitating teacher’s words
• First several trials use zero-second delay period to provide initial instruction
• Ex: “Read the sign” & immediately say “walk”
• After initial trials, insert delay period
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XKbboCNmAzk

• Similar to CTD, but more effective for students with severe disabilities
• Difference is: gradually increases the time delay period between the direction and the prompt
• Go from zero-second to 1-s (for several trails), then 2-s
(for several trials, then 3s, etc….
• Because delay period is gradually increased, more likely that the student will not be lost between direction and prompt

•
Natural Sd

Target Behavior

Consequence
• ( Prompt)
• Teaching cursive writing
• Teaching swallowing
• Teaching Carl how to ask to enter a wall ball game.
• Teaching Emily to move from one task to another without help.
• Teaching Phil to wait at snack without grabbing food.

• Defined: Stimulus Fading
• The gradual reduction or removal of a prompt.
• Fading is a process for transferring stimulus control.
• Examples:
•
•
•
Change in physical features (dashed lines)
Change in specificity of verbal prompts (“pick up the screwdriver”…to…
“what’s next”)
Time delay (“Prompt+Sd”….to… “Prompt….Sd”)

• Increasing Assistance (Least-to-Most Prompts) —start with least intrusive and add more intrusive if necessary.
• Graduated Guidance (Hand-over-hand, physical guidance) —reducing full guidance to “shadowing”.
• Time Delay —wait several seconds before prompting to allow student to respond.
• Decreasing Assistance (Most-to-Least Prompts) —move to less intrusive prompt when behavior occurs reliably
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IwaqAkwbd_w&feature=mfu_in_ord er&list=UL

• AKA: least-to-most prompting OR least intrusive prompting OR increasing assistance
•
•
Uses a brief waiting period
Then, present hierarchy of increasingly intrusive prompts (minimal prompt to maximum prompt)
• e.g., gestural, verbal, partial physical, full physical
• Provide a prompt on each trial with only the minimum intensity necessary to get the behavior to occur
• Most commonly used for teaching chained tasks (Doyle et al.,
1988)

• Work with a partner and do the following:
1. Task analysis of steps to complete
2. Determine a least-to-most hierarchy of prompts
Example:
1.
No prompt (time delay for 5 seconds)
2.
Indirect verbal prompt (“what’s next?”)
3.
Direct verbal prompt (“Do ____”)
4.
Partial physical prompt (nudge hand)
5.
Fully physical assistance (fully guide hand)

• Opposite of the system of least prompts
• AKA: Decreasing assistance procedure
• Simultaneously providing target stimulus AND most intrusive prompt on the first set of trials
• Eliminates most errors that tend to occur in early learning trials.
• Commonly used with individuals with very severe/profound disabilities —start with full physical with verbal direction

• Verbal prompt “move it to the tens” during two digit addition to prompt carrying.
• Verbal prompt “ask nicely” when prompting Elsie to ask for toys/food, etc.
• Physical prompt “touch on arm” as student points to communication board.
• Gesture prompt, pointing to the correct color when asked to touch “yellow, etc”
• Embedded prompt, dashed lines for writing

• Defined
• Teaching new behaviors through differential reinforcement of successive approximations of correct responding.
• Differential reinforcement for shaping means that responses that meet a certain criterion are reinforced, while those that do not meet the criterion are not.
• The Sd and reward are constant. What changes is the rule for delivering the reward. The goal is to improve the precision of the new skill.

1. Behavior is present, but not fluent in the presence of the “signal”
2. Focus on CONSEQUENCES
-requires powerful reinforcers
-use differential reinforcement
3. Systematic reinforcement of successive approximations toward the target behavior
-specify dimensions of the target/goal behavior
-reinforce slight improvements/changes
-takes time
-avoid practicing errors

Shaping:
Students learn new things when a teacher “shapes” an existing response into the desired behavior.
Advantages of shaping:
• faster than waiting for a correct response
• learner succeeds at a high rate
• still kind of slow because you are waiting for the learner

• Identify the terminal behavior (end result)
• Identify the initial behavior
• Identify intermediate behaviors
• Determine the size of steps toward the goal
• Reinforce successive approximations of the behavior
• Monitor progress
• Example student accessing a switch

• Problem behavior: Students are off-task about 80% of the time when working with a partner. Off-topic conversation occurs and work is not completed.
• Define the terminal behavior.
• Define the initial behavior.
• What will our “successive approximations” be?

Shaping:
How would you use shaping to..
• Develop skill of saying “thank you” (in different ways) to peers.
• Develop skill of reading third grade material at 150 words correct per minute.
• Develop ability of a pre-schooler to stay in morning circle for
10 min without screaming

• A procedure to teach complex skills.
•
• Reinforce combinations of simple behaviors so they become an integrated, whole.
Based on “task analysis” logic
• Requires a “task” that is organized into a sequence of “responses.” Each of the responses serves as a “link” in “chain of behavior”
• Main idea
• The reward at the end of a chain will maintain all the other responses in the chain. The goal is to teach that each step has an Sd-> R. Each R generates a new Sd until the final step which ends with a Sr+ (reward).
• Three basic approaches
• Total Task Chaining
•
• Forward chaining
Backward chaining

• Total Task Training:
• Instruction begins by starting with the first step in the chain and teaching each successive step in order until the chain of responses is completed.
• Successful with all sorts of chained tasks
• Works best if the chain is not too long (chained tasks can be subdivided or a single training trial can be too lengthy).
• Main advantage: all teaching opportunities are used (each step is taught each time) and the task is completed.
• May produce faster learning than other chaining methods.
• More natural approach than the other options

• Begin instruction by starting with the student performing any learned steps in order up to the first unmastered response, at which point instruction occurs.
• Remainder of chain completed by teacher or by student with assistance
• Useful with many self-care routines and chained academic tasks
(e.g., use of number line, telephone dialing, calculator use, etc.)
• May be stigmatizing when assistance with unlearned part of the task is obvious…so think of how to do this and respect student’s dignity

1.
2.
3.
4.
Student does FIRST STEP, teacher does the rest of chain.
Keep adding steps until student completes entire chain.
Reinforce student for completing the desired number of steps requested by the teacher.
Useful when prompting is difficult.

• Backward
• Instruction begins by helping the student perform the entire chain up until the last step of the chain, at which point instruction occurs.
• Useful with many self-care routines
•
•
Advantage over forward chaining: student is being assisted through the task, completes the task quickly, and gets reinforcement early in learning.
May also be stigmatizing, respect student’s dignity
• With all of these chaining strategies reinforcement is given quickly
(e.g., praise) after each response and again at the end of the chain
(e.g., a short break)

1.
2.
3.
Teacher does all but last step, student completes LAST STEP.
Keep adding steps until student completes entire chain
Reinforce student for completing the desired number steps requested bythe teacher.
4.
Often used with functional skills
5.
Student can perform steps with prompts.
Video: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LbBj4Tzi9CQ&feature=re lated

• Chained: multi-step behaviors
• E.g. sweeping the floor, playing UNO, ordering food
• Discrete: stand alone (e.g., naming people, matching numbers to quantities, reading words)
• It is sometimes hard to distinguish the difference, depending on the learner

• Following the use of the toilet, Marc will wash his hands by completing 8 of 10 task steps independently
• When asked to circle a word (e.g., nap, mop, map) that matches a picture on a worksheet, Marc will correctly circle the word 75% of the worksheet for two probes in a row
• When given a slant board to hold his papers and a template to limit the range of writing, Marc will print all of the letters of the alphabet from a model 100% of the time on two probes in a row.
• During lunch time at school, Marc will complete 10 of the
12 steps independently: get in line, go to cafeteria….etc….and return to the classroom.