Biology EOC Review
Molecular Biology
15-19%
Structure and Function of Living Organisms
18-22%
Ecosystems
18-22%
Evolution and Genetics
43-53%
Topic: Molecular Biology
• Bio 4.1 Biological Molecules
• Bio 4.1.1 Structure and function of organic
compounds
• Bio 4.1.2 Proteins and protein synthesis
• Bio 4.1.3 Enzymes
• Bio 4.2 Biochemical processes and Energy
use in the cell
• Bio 4.2.1 Photosynthesis and cellular
respiration
• Bio 4.2.2 Energy is necessary for
homeostasis
Biological Molecules
• Contain the element Carbon
• 4 major macromolecules:
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Nucleic Acids
Proteins
Carbohydrates
• Structure/monomer/subunit/basic
building block:
Monosaccharide
• Function:
Energy source and structure
• Examples:
glucose-blood sugar
cellulose- plant cell walls
starch- storage for plants
glycogen- storage in mammals’ liver
• Tests:
Glucose-Benedict’s solution (when heated
turns orange/green)
Starch- Iodine solution (turns blue black
color)
• Ends in –ose: sugar
Lipids
• Structure: 3 fatty acids and 1 glycerol
• Function: long term energy storage, protection, and
insulation
• Examples: fats, phospholipids and steroids (cell
membrane)
• Test: brown paper
Lipid
vs..
Nucleic Acids
• Monomer/subunit/basic
building block:
nucleotide (sugar,
phosphate group, and
nitrogen base)
• Function:
store genetic information
• Examples:
DNA and RNA
Proteins
• Monomer/subunit/basic building blockamino acids (20 different amino acids)
** all have same basic structure, including an
amino group and carboxyl group. However,
all have different “R” group which
determines shape which determines
function. **
• Function- building and repairing cells,
communication, transport,
gene expression, and regulation
• Test- Biurets
• Examples:
insulin-regulates blood sugar
enzymes-speed up chemical reactions
hemoglobin- carries oxygen in blood
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•
•
•
•
Enzymes
“organic catalysts”
Specific; “lock and key method”
Protein
Reusable
Affected by temperature and pH; shape is
altered in high temperature and extreme pH
• Speed up chemical reaction by lowering the
activation energy
• End in -ase
Photosynthesis-”light making”
• The way plants make their
own food (autotrophs)
• Reactants: Water, Carbon
Dioxide, and Sun
• Products: Glucose and
Oxygen
• Sun+H2O+CO2C6H12O6+O2
• Occurs in the chloroplast
• Sun: Radiant energy
• Producers/Consumers:
Chemical energy
• Final: Heat energy
Photosynthesis (continued…)
• Plants take in water through their roots and take
in carbon dioxide through holes in their leaves
called STOMATA
Aerobic/Cellular Respiration
• With Oxygen
• Used to release energy (ATP)
for cellular use
• Reactants: Glucose and
oxygen
• Products: Water and Carbon
Dioxide
• C6H12O6+O2H2O+CO2
• Occurs in the mitochondria
• Inverse of photosynthesis
• 36-38 ATP; very efficient
• “aerobics class like ZUMBA”
Anaerobic Respiration
aka Fermentation
• No Oxygen
• Used to release energy, but not as efficient
as aerobic respiration (less ATP)
• Products include CO2 and lactic acid or
alcohol
• Two Types:
• Alcoholic Fermentation (yeast/beer)
• Lactic Acid Fermentation
(muscle fatigue/cramps)
ATP
Energy Storing Molecule
• Maintain homeostasis
• Can be used for quick
energy by the cell
• Energy is stored in the
phosphate bonds
• Break bonds to release
energy
• Think about “glow stick”
break to activate glowing
Questions For Standard 4
1. Glucose is blood sugar and insulin helps to regulate it. From which organic
compounds do glucose and insulin belong?
2. Plants and animals must store carbohydrates to use for later. Which
carbohydrate is used for storage in plants? Which carbohydrate is used for
storage in animals?
3. Which carbohydrate is found in plant cell walls and is indigestible for mammals
and other animals?
4. Which organic compound would become your energy source if you were without
food for a long period of time?
5. The functional units of DNA are ___________________.
6. What makes the 20 different amino acids different? How does this contribute
to their function?
7. How do enzymes speed up reactions?
8. How many substrates can one enzyme fit with? What type of analogy can be
used to explain this?
9. What happens to the enzymes in your body if your temperature is too high
10. Which organelle is the site of photosynthesis?
Questions For Standard 4
11. What type of organisms can use photosynthesis?
12. Which organelle is the site of respiration?
13. What type of organisms can use respiration?
14. Which two compounds are created at the end of photosynthesis and are
used at the beginning of aerobic respiration?
15. Which anaerobic process is responsible for producing ATP in the
absence of oxygen?
16. Which compounds builds up in your muscles after strenuous exercise
and causes them to feel sore?
17. Which compound is produced by plants and yeast during anaerobic
respiration?
18. Why is aerobic respiration considered the ideal method of producing
ATP?
19. Why is ATP necessary for all living things?
Topic: Structure and Functions of Living
Organisms
• Bio 1.1 Structures and functions of cells and their
organelles
• Bio 1.1.1 Eukaryotic cells’ organelles (nucleus, plasma
membrane, cell wall, mitochondria, vacuoles, chloroplasts,
and ribosomes)
• Bio 1.1.2 Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic cells
• Bio 1.1.3 Instructions in DNA lead to cell differentiation
and result in cell specialization
• Bio 1.2 Cell as a Living System
• Bio 1.2.1 Homeostasis
• Bio 1.2.2 Cell Cycle (Interphase, Mitosis, and Cytokinesis
• Bio 1.2.3 Specific Cell Adaptations
Prokaryotes
Cells
• Simple, no membrane bound
organelles (less complex)
• No Nucleus
• Bacteria only (unicellular)
• Smaller than eukaryotes
• Includes: circular DNA
strands (Plasmids), ribosomes,
and plasma membrane
Eukaryotes
• Membrane bound
organelles
• Plants and Animals
• True nucleus
Prokaryote and Eukaryote
Nucleus/Nucleolus
• “Control Center”
• Contains
chromosomes
• Genetic
Information
Nucleolus: Ribosomal
Synthesis (make ribosomes)
Mitochondria
• Energy, energy, energy
• “Powerhouse” of cell
• Produces energy in the
form of ATP
• Site of
Aerobic/cellular
respiration
• Cristae (folds) increase
surface area to
increase energy
production during
cellular respiration
Chloroplast
• Site of
photosynthesis: the
way plants make
their foodautotrophs
• Use sunlight, water,
and carbon dioxide to
produce oxygen and
glucose
• Plant cells ONLY
• Contains the green
pigment chlorophyll
Vacuole
• Storage of excess
materials
• Plant cells usually
contain one large
vacuole
Ribosomes
• Proteins are synthesized
• Found in both prokaryotes and
eukaryotes
Plasma Membrane
aka: Cell Membrane
• Surrounds the cell
• Regulates what
enters/leaves the cell
(bouncer/security
guard)
• Helps maintain
homeostasis (stable
internal balance)
• Made of phospholipids
with embedded
proteins
• Gatekeeper
Cell Wall
• Plant cells ONLY
• Surrounds cell and
provides support
and protection
• Made of cellulosea carbohydrate
(sugar)
Eukaryotes
Plant
• Cell wall
• Chloroplast
• Large central vacuole
Animal
Interaction of Organelles
DNA codes for
proteins which
are assembled by
the ribosomes
and used as
enzymes for
energy
production at the
mitochondria
Specialized Cells
cells develop to perform specific functions; structure determines
function
Regulated by genes
Formation of Multicellular Organisms
• Begin as undifferentiated masses of cells
• DNA variation & gene activity determines differentiation
of cells
• Only specific parts of DNA activated
• All cells contain same DNA in organism
• Genetic instructions influenced by cell’s environment and
past history
Cell to Cell Communication
• Chemical Signals (hormones) can be sent from
one cell to another
• Receptor proteins on the plasma membrane
receive the signal
Stem Cells
Adult and Embryonic
• Unspecialized cells that
continually reproduce
themselves and have
under appropriate
conditions the ability to
differentiate into one or
more types of
specialized cells
• Embryonic: not yet
differentiated into
various cell types
• Example of adult stem
cells: bone marrow
Plasma Membrane
• Buffers to regulate cell pH and cells can respond
to maintain temperature, glucose levels, and water
balance in organisms
• Remove toxins, move the body to avoid danger,
find food, water, or a mate
Diffusion
• Form of passive transport (NO ENERGY
NEEDED and Random) across a
membrane
• high concentration to low concentration
Osmosis
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•
•
•
Diffusion of water
Passive transport
NO ENERGY
With concentration
gradient
• High to low concentration
• Example: Food color in
water; riding bike down
hill
Active Transport
• Particles moving against the
concentration gradient which
REQUIRES ENERGY (ATP)
• Low concentration to high
concentration
• Example: Riding back up the hill
requires energy
• Energy needed to maintain homeostasis
within organisms
• Example: rid cell of toxins; movement
to avoid danger; movement to find
food, water, mates, etc..
• Iso:
“same”/”equal”
Hypo: Swell
• Movement of
water is the same Think “Hippo”
in and out of a cell Water moves
Solutions
into cell
Hyper: Shrink
Water moves
out of the cell
-Salt water
Solutions
• Isotonic: concentration of solutes in the
cell=concentration of solutes outside the cell
• Hypertonic=water is greater inside the cell
than outside the cell; solutes outside the cell
are greater than solutes inside the cell;
“shrink”
• Hypotonic=solutes outside the cell are less
than solutes inside the cell; water moves
from area of high (outside cell) to low
concentration (inside cell)
Sodium Potassium Pump
Cell Cycle
• Interphase: cell spends
the most time (G1
(growth), S (DNA and
chromosomes
replicates/copy), G2
(check for errors)
• Mitosis: makes body
cells; asexual; parent
and offspring identical
• Cytokinesis: cytoplasm
divides and 2 new cells
formed
Phases of Mitosis (Asexual
Reproduction)
“PMAT”
Prophase: “preparation”
(chromosomes visible, nucleus
disappears)
Metaphase: “middle”
(chromosomes line up in the middle)
Anaphase: “apart”
(sister chromatids separate)
Telophase: “two”
(nuclei reappear and cleavage furrow
forms)
Cytokinesis: “cytoplasm divides”
Results in 2 diploid identical cells
(parents identical to daughter cells)
Binary Fission
Specific Cell Adaptations
Amoeba:
-contractile
vacuole (excess
water)
-pseudopods (false
feet)
Paramecium:
-cilia: short, hair like
Structures used for
Movement/locomotion
Euglena:
-flagella (long,
whip like);
movement
-eyespot: light
sensitive
(photo taxis)
Questions for Standard 1
1. What quality of the nucleus allows it to be in charge of all cell processes?
2. Which cell organelle is flexible due to its arrangement of phospholipids?
3. What type of organisms have cell walls?
4. What is the function of the folds within the mitochondria?
5. What three things regarding cell organelles are different between plant and
animal cells?
6. Do prokaryotes have ribosomes? Why?
7. What is the only living thing on Earth that is made of a prokaryote cell?
8. What is the name of the circular DNA that prokaryotes have?
9. If all cells have the same DNA, why are they not the same?
10. Why does the body need different types of cells? Give some examples of
different cells.
11. What are cells called that do not have a specific job yet?
12. Define homeostasis?
13. What is the difference between diffusion and osmosis?
14. If a cell is placed in salt water, what will happen to the cell?
15. If a cell is placed in pure water, what will happen to the cell?
16. What is necessary for the process of active transport to occur?
17. In which part of the cell cycle are chromosomes copied?
18. In which part of the cell cycle do cells spend the most time?
19. What phase/term refers to division of the nucleus and chromosomes?
20.When are two new cells formed?
21. What is the function of the contractile vacuole?
22.What type of organisms have an eyespot?
23.Describe the cilia, flagella, and pseudopods in terms of movement for the
Topic: Ecosystems
• Bio 2.1 Interdependence of Living Organisms
• Bio 2.1.1 Water, Carbon, Nitrogen, and Oxygen
Cycles
• Bio 2.1.2 Behavioral, Structural, and
Reproductive Adaptations
• Bio 2.1.3 Interactions among Organisms
• Bio 2.1.4 Ecosystems
• Bio 2.2 Human Impact
• Bio 2.2.1 Human Activities
• Bio 2.2.2 Sustainability
Ecology
• Collection of
abiotic (nonlivng)
and biotic (living)
factors in an area
• Together they
influence growth,
survival, and
productivity of an
organism
Symbiotic Relationships
• Symbiosis: close and permanent
relationship between members of
different species
• Types:
– Mutualism (+,+)
– Both Benefit
Example: bees and flowers both
benefit from pollination
– Parasitism (+,-)
– 1 Benefits and 1 Harmed
Example: Human &
Tapeworm; dog &tick; mistletoeplant that grows within trees and
benefits by absorbing nutrients
from them and the tree is harmed
by being deprived of nutrients
Predation
• Predator: hunter; eats
prey
• Prey: being hunted or
eaten
• Evolve in response to
one another
• Help maintain stability
within an ecosystem
Predator-Prey Relationship
• Predators eat prey and
maintain the health of prey
populations.
• The predators eat old, sick,
weak, and injured in prey
populations.
• As the population of the
prey increases, the
predator population will
increase.
• As the predators increase,
the number of prey
decrease.
Carbon Cycle
Carbon cycles through an
ecosystem through:
- Atmosphere: CO2
- Photosynthesis: CO2 enters
plants and plants use to make
glucose
- Decomposition: Plants die,
buried as fossil fuels
- Humans burn fossil fuels and
CO2 enters atmosphere
- Climate change: CO2 is a
greenhouse gas; traps heat
in atmosphere
- Cellular Respiration: Animals
eat plants and carbon passes
to consumers and then back
into the atmosphere through
respiration; Humans breathe
out CO2 and breathe in O2
Nitrogen Cycle
• Nitrogen necessary because it
is a key component of amino
acids (proteins) and nucleic
acids (DNA)
• 78% of air is nitrogen
(unusable form for plants and
animals)
• Plants receive nitrogen from
the soil.
• Nitrogen fixing bacteria
converts nitrogen into a usable
form (ammonia)
• Nitrogen is broken down and
returned to the atmosphere by
bacteria, fungi, and other
microorganisms
Food Chain-shows the flow of
energy from one organism to
another organism
Food Web
• System of interlocking
and independent food
chains that shows all
possible feeding
relationships between
organisms
• Plants:producers/autot
rophs
• Animals:consumers/het
erotrophs
• Energy needed by all
organisms to maintain
homeostasis
• Plants and animals use energy
to perform life functions
• Ultimate source of energySUN (radiant energy)
• Radiant energy is converted
to chemical energy
• Chemical energy converted to
heat energy
• Steps in a food chain/web
• Energy passes from one
organism to another
• About 10% of the energy at
one level passes to the next
and other 90% lost as heat
Energy Pyramids
Life Functions
• Transport-how organisms get
what they need to their cells
• Vascular Tissues: Xylem
(water) and phloem
(sugar/glucose) example: tree
• Non-vascular (example: moss)
do not have a xylem or phloem
(no true roots and live in
moist areas) and are in close
contact with the water and
will never grow more than a
few inches off the ground
• Insects, amphibians, and
mammals-circulatory systems
with blood vessels to
transport needed materials
Vascular Plants
• Xylem-transports water (up from roots to leaves)
• Phloem-transports sugar (down from leaves to roots)
Life Functions
• Excretion-how organisms
get rid of waste
• Amphibians and mammalsurinary system with kidneys
to remove nitrogen;
kidneys: regulate water
balance, salt, and pH
• Plants-holes in their leaves
called stomata that are
used to excrete wastes
such as oxygen produced
during photosynthesis
• Plants lose water from
stomata during
transpiration
Life Functions
• Respiration- how organisms
take in and release gases
• All living things respire to
produce ATP using oxygen
within the mitochondria of
cells
• Plants take in and release
gases through the stomata
on their leaves
• Amphibians and mammals
have lungs used for taking
in oxygen.
• Single celled organisms
such as bacteria and
protist use diffusion for
taking in gases
Life Functions
• Nutrition-how organisms get
nutrition/break down and
absorb foods
• Autotrophs/producers: make
their own food through
photosynthesis (ex: plants)
• Heterotrophs/consumers:
get food from different
source (ex: humans)
• Animals have digestive
system to break down food
• Mammals-different teeth
shapes to eat certain foods
• Birds- different beak shapes
to eat certain foods
Life Functions
• Growth/Development/Reprod
uction: Some plants grow from
seeds like plants with flowers
(angiosperms) and cones
(gymnosperms).
• Some plants grow from spores
like moss and ferns.
• Spores do not have to be
fertilized.
• Seed plants use pollen and
ovules (eggs) during sexual
reproduction. Pollen-male
structure and ovule- female
structure.
• Methods of pollinationinsects, birds, mammals, wind,
etc..
•
Life Functions
Growth/Development/Reproduction:
Insects/amphibians go through
metamorphosis (adult and young do not
compete for food)
• Reproductive methods:
Animals in the water (fish/amphibians)
use external fertilization; large # of eggs
fertilized at 1 time
Animals such as mammals have internal
fertilization
3 types: monotremes- lay eggs ex:
platypus
marsupials- partial development in
a
pouch ex: kangaroo
placental- complete
development inside uterus
Fertilized egg=zygote
Innate Behavior
“Instincts”
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Behaviors an animal is born with
Includes
Suckling (attachment for feeding)
Migration (leave north to go south
for warmer climate)
Hibernation (during winter months)
Estivation (dormancy during hot
period)
Photo taxis (movement
toward/away from light)
Chemo taxis (movement
toward/away from chemical
stimulus)
Social Behavior
• Communication between
individuals of the same
species
• Can be courtship (ex: male
peacock as he spreads his
tail feathers to attract a
mate)
• territorial (ex: Male Betta
fish)
• chemical/pheromones to
communicate things such as
the location of food (ex:
bees, ants, termites)
Learned Behaviors
• Habituation-learned by
repetition or “habit” and there
is a decrease in response to
stimulus (ex: city horses)
• Imprinting-animal forms a
social attachment to another
animal at an early, critical time
in their life (ex: baby duck will
follow the first animal that it
sees upon hatching)
• Classical conditioning-animal
associates one type of behavior
with a reward (ex: Pavlov’s dog)
• Trial and error-trying various
responses until one is rewarded
Carrying Capacity/Logistic
Growth
“S” shaped
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• Maximum number of
individuals that an ecosystem
can support-carrying capacity
• Limiting factors (cause
population to decrease):
– Food availability
– Competition
– Disease
– Predation
– Natural Disasters
– Climate
– Territory (space)
Human Population/Exponential
Growth
• Growth= birth rate-death rate
• Current human population has no limiting factors
• the larger the population,
the faster it grows
• Unlimited resources
(food, shelter, mates, land, etc.)
• “J” shaped
• Human population increases,
resources such as fossil fuels are
consumed at an increasing rate
Effect of Disease on Ecosystem
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AIDS
Influenza
Tuberculosis
Dutch Elm
Disease
• Psfiesteria
• Ecosystems with lots of
variation (genetic diversity
and diversity of species) are
more resilient to the impacts
of diseases because:
greater possibility that
some species have evolved
resistance
if a species is lost there
will be another species to fill
the niche of an extinct species
Human Impacts
Human population increases, use of fossil fuels increases
More consumption=more waste=more pollution
Positive
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Reforestation
Cover Rotation (plant different crops
each year to replenish
nutrients/decrease mineral loss in
soil)
Recycling-preserve natural resources
Sustainable practice (Reduce, reuse,
and recycle)
Organic
Negative
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Acid Rain
Deforestation (increase CO2 &
decrease O2)
Habitat Destruction
Invasive Species
Ozone depletion from the release of
CFCs
Remove trees-increase erosion-leads
to water runoff and decrease of
habitats
North Carolina Ecosystems Impact
• Acid rain effects in
mountains (rain=acidic and
killing trees in mountains)
• Beach erosion (rise in
global sea levels due to
global warming and
melting of glaciers
• Urban development in the
Piedmont leading to
habitat destruction
&water runoff
• Waste lagoons on hog
farms (untreated manure
into local rivers and lakes
contaminating waters and
killing aquatic species
• Kudzu as an invasive plant
(overtakes and kills native
species)
NON-NATIVE SPECIES
• Plants, animals, or other organisms that
are are introduced to a given area
outside their original range and cause
harm in their new home;
• NO natural enemies
• NO predators
Global Warming
• Increase in the average
temperature of the earth
• Caused by the release of
too much CO2 into the
atmosphere which
amplifies the greenhouse
effect
• Major cause: Burning of
fossil fuels, volcanic
eruptions
Bioaccumulation
• An increase in environmental
toxins as you move up a food
chain
• Organisms higher on the food
chain eat more and the more
an organism eats the more
toxins that they ingest
• Ex. DDT and birds of prey
Questions for Standard 2
1. How does carbon enter plants?
2. List two ways that consumers return carbon to the atmosphere?
3. What process is explained by carbon dioxide holding heat in the atmosphere?
4. Why is nitrogen important to humans?
5. What happens to energy as it moves up the food chain? Why?
6. What two structures do most plants use for transport of materials? What is the
difference between the two?
7. What are the structures within plants’ leaves that allow gas exchange and
excretion of wastes?
8. What process is described by loss of water from a plants leaves?
9. In addition to gas exchange, what is the overall goal of respiration?
10. How do plants obtain nutrients?
11. What is the advantage of a spore?
Questions for Standard 2
12. What is the advantage of external fertilization?
13. Contrast monotremes, marsupials, and placental mammals.
14. How are estivation and hibernation similar? How are they different?
15. What social behavior is displayed by Betta fish?
16. Give an example of each of the following:
a. communication using pheromones
b. courtship behavior
c. photo taxis
17. After moving to his new home, a man is startled several times per day due to
close proximity to a passing train. According to habituation, what should eventually
happen?
18. Why might imprinting be necessary for survival of an animal?
19. Which behavior is described by associating a certain behavior with a reward,
such as with Pavlov’s dog?
20. Contrast mutualism and parasitism.
Questions for Standard 2
21. What happens to a prey population if the predator population decreases? Why?
22. What are limiting factors? Give two examples.
23. What happens when a population reaches carrying capacity?
24. What two things have increased along with increasing human population.
25. How has acid rain affected the mountains of NC?
26. Why are hog farms damaging to NC ecosystems?
27. Why is Kudzu so bad?
28. Why do pesticides kill animals such as eagles?
29. What can you do to have good Stewardship (help preserve the environment for
the future)?
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Topic: Evolution and Genetics
Bio 3.1 Structure and Function of DNA
Bio 3.1.1 DNA-double stranded
Bio 3.1.2 DNA and RNA code for proteins and determine traits
Bio 3.1.3 Mutations
Bio 3.2 Expression of Genetic Traits
Bio 3.2.1 Meiosis/Sexual Reproduction/Genetic Variation
Bio 3.2.2 Inheritance Patterns
Bio 3.2.3 Environmental Factors
Bio 3.3 DNA Technology
Bio 3.3.1 DNA Comparison and Identification
Bio 3.3.2 Transgenic Organisms
Bio 3.3.3 Ethical Issues
Bio 3.4 Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection
Bio 3.4.1 Evidence for Evolution
Bio 3.4.2 Natural Selection
Bio 3.4.3 Disease Agents
Bio 3.5 Classification Systems
Bio 3.5.1 Historical and Modern Systems
Bio 3.5.2 Evolutionary Relationships
DNA / RNA
• Monomer/Subunit/Basic Building Block:
Nucleic Acids
• Store genetic information
• Made of a chain of nucleotides
• Nucleotide:
sugar
phosphate
nitrogen base
DNA / RNA
DNA
• Double stranded
• Double Helix
• “Twisted Ladder” (backbone: sugar
and phosphate)
• “Rungs of ladder” (inside:
complementary base pairs Adenine to
Thymine and Cytosine to Guanine)
• Sugar is Deoxyribose
• Found in nucleus
RNA
• Single stranded
• Four base pairs: AUCG
• Sugar is Ribose
Sequence of DNA determines which proteins are
made. Proteins are important for building things
within the body and in chemical reactions
(enzymes).
Base Pair Rule
• In DNA,
Adenine always pairs with Thymine, and
Guanine always pairs with Cytosine (weak
hydrogen bonds)
• In RNA, NO THYMINE, NO THYMINE,
Adenine always pairs with Uracil and Guanine
always pairs with Cytosine (weak hydrogen
bonds)
Replication
• Making of an identical
strand of DNA
• Occurs during “S” phase
(synthesis) of cell cycle
• Daughter cells have an
exact copy of parental
DNA
• “semi” conservative
1 “old” strand (original) and
1 “new” strand
Central Dogma
Protein Synthesis: making of proteins
Transcription (nucleus)
produces an RNA copy of DNA
• DNAmRNA
• mRNA travels from
the nucleus to
ribosomes
• Occurs in nucleus
• Complementary
mRNA strand is
produced from a
segment of DNA
• 3 RNA:
-mRNA(messenger)carries blueprint
-tRNA (transfer)gathers amino acids
-rRNA (ribosomal)assembles proteins
Translation (ribosomes)
• rRNA reads the message and helps assemble protein
• tRNA bring amino acids to the ribosome according to the
mRNA codons
• Amino acids are linked together by rRNA using peptide
bonds
Proteins
• Structural-forming a
part of the cell
membrane; build
things ex: keratin
• Functionalhormones, enzymes,
or chemicals; cellular
processes
Codon
• Sequence of three mRNA nucleotides
that code for an amino acid
Mutations
• Change in DNA sequence
• Addition/Deletion: base added or
deleted; each codon is shifted and the
entire amino acid sequence/protein is
altered and will most likely be
nonfunctional
• Substitutions: base or codon switched
with another; alter 1 amino acid and will
result in slightly altered amino acid ex:
Sickle Cell
• NOT always harmful
• Caused by- Randomness/spontaneous or
Radiation and/or chemical exposure
(environmental influence)
• Mutations in sex cells (egg or sperm) can
be inherited
Sickle
Cell
Mutation
Sickle Cell:recessive
genetic disorder
Resistant to malaria
Mitosis/Body Cells
• Cell division
• Produces two
identical diploid (2n)
daughter cells
• Occurs in body cells
to grow and repair
• Asexual
reproduction
• Cloning, binary
fission, budding
• 2 identical diploid
(2n) daughter cells
• No genetic variation
Cancer
• Error in cell growth with causes
uncontrolled cell growth
• Has environment and genetic variables
Mitosis vs. Meiosis
• Normal humans
46 chromosomes in body cells
23 chromosomes in sex cells
(egg or sperm)
•First 22 pairs-autosomes
•23rd pair – sex chromosomes
•Females XX
•Males XY
• Cell division
• Produces four different
haploid (n) daughter cells
(gametes)
• Occurs in sex cells
(gametes) egg or sperm
• Sexual reproduction
• 4 genetically different
haploid (n) cells
• Genetic
variation/diversity
• Independent assortment
• Fertilization-egg+sperm
• 2 cell divisions
Meiosis
Crossing Over occurs during Meiosis
• Homologous chromosomes
exchange parts of their DNA
• Creates variation in gametes
Nondisjunction
• Homologous
chromosomes fail to
separate during
meiosis
• Can lead to
• Down Syndrome
(Trisomy 21) extra
chromosome on 21st
pair
Asexual vs.. Sexual
Reproduction
Asexual
• One parent
• Identical offspring
• Variation only thru
mutations
• Examples: budding,
fragmentation,
fission, cloning
Sexual
• Two parents
• Offspring different
from parents
• More variation
• Fertilization (fusion
of gametes---------n+n=2n ); zygote (2n)
Inheritance
• Traits are specific
characteristics
inherited from parents
• Genes are the factors
that determine traits
• The different forms
of a gene are called
alleles
Dominant/Recessive Alleles
• Dominant alleles are expressed, if present, and
recessive are hidden
• Dominant alleles mask recessive alleles
• Capital Letters ex: HH (homozygous dominant) or Hh
(heterozygous dominant)
• Lowercase Letters ex: hh (homozygous recessive)
Genotype
actual alleles an individual has for a trait
genetic makeup
Homozygous (same)
• Both alleles are the
same
• Ex. BB or bb
Heterozygous (different)
• Both alleles are different
• Ex. Bb
Genotypic Ratio:
1BB:2Bb:1bb
Phenotype
• The actual characteristic displayed by the
individual (ex. brown eyes, Hemophiliac, tall)
• Physical trait; what it looks like
Phenotypic Ratio:
3 purple:1 white
Incomplete Dominance
“BLENDING”
• Heterozygote shows a
blending of the
dominant and recessive
phenotypes
• Example: Red + white =
Pink flowers
Codominance
“BOTH”
• Heterozygote expresses both traits
• Ex. Checkered Chicken
Polygenic Traits
“many”
• Traits are controlled
by more than one
gene
• Many possible
phenotypes
• Ex. skin color,
hair color, and
eye color
Multiple
Alleles
• More than two alleles
• for a trait (an individual
still only inherits two)
• Ex. Blood Type
type A = IAIA or IAi
type B = IBIB or IBi
type AB= IAIB
type O = ii (recessive)
Blood Typing Problems
• Type AB (mom) and
Heterozygous
Type B (Dad)
25% Type AB
25% Type A
50% Type B(BB/BO)
Blood Typing Practice
Square and Blood Type Percentages
1. Homozygous Type A (mom) and Type AB
(dad)
2. Type O (mom) and Homozygous Type B (dad)
Sex Linked Traits
• Sex Chromosomes (23rd pair)
– Female = XX
– Male = XY
• Sex linked traits are carried
on the X chromosome only
• More common in males (only
have 1 X to inherit recessive
allele)
• Females would have to inherit
2 recessive alleles on X’s
• Ex. Hemophilia, colorblindness
• Recessive allele (affected)
• similar to a family tree
• Shows how a trait or
disease is passed in a
family
Pedigree
Male=square
Female=circle
Shaded=affected
Strike Through=death
If 2 parents (heterozygous
dominant) have a trait, but
their son or daughter does not,
the trait is dominant and the
unaffected offspring will be
recessive.
If 2 parents do not have a trait,
but their son or daughter does,
the trait is recessive. The
parents must be heterozygous
dominant and affected
offspring will be recessive.
Karyotype
• Chart of someone's chromosomes (23 pairs)
• From largest to smallest
• Can determine chromosomal disorders and
gender
Down Syndrome
Extra
chromosome at
21st pair
Environmental Factors
on Genes
Genetic Condition
Prevention
Lung Cancer
No smoking
Skin Cancer
Limited sun exposure, vitamin D,
folic acid
Type 2 Diabetes
Diet low in sugar and regular
exercise
PKU
Testing at birth; diet free of
phenylalanine (dairy products)
Heart disease
Diet low in fat and regular exercise
Malaria
Sickle Cell Anemia (resistant)
Human Genome Project
• Sequencing of human
DNA
• 13 year project
• Being used to develop
gene therapies
• Determine whether
individuals carry genes
for genetic conditions
• Ex: SCID and Cystic
Fibrosis
Gel
Electrophoresis
• Technique used to separate
molecules (DNA or proteins)
based on size
• Use restriction enzymes to
cut DNA into fragments
• Smaller fragments travel quicker
and farther in the gel than do
larger fragments and will be
found at the bottom of the
• “DNA fingerprinting”
• Identify individuals, identify and
catalogue endangered species
Recombinant DNA
• Cell with DNA from
another source
• Example: Bacteria used to
produce human insulin
• Step 1: Gene for human
insulin isolated from human
DNA
• Step 2: Gene is cut and
inserted into the bacterial
chromosome (plasmid)
• Step 3: Bacteria must then
take in the plasmid so that
it can use the insulin gene
to make the insulin protein
Bacterial
Transformation
• Insertion of a gene
into bacterial
plasmid
• Getting bacteria
to take in the
plasmid
• Selecting the
transformed
bacteria
• Producing the
product
Transgenic Organism
• Contain DNA
fragments from
other organisms
• Agricultural: crops
resistant to certain
crops
• Bacteria: human insulin
(diabetes)
Origin of Life
Beginning
• Atmosphere was hot
• No oxygen
• First “cells” anaerobic prokaryotes, then
photosynthetic organisms, then eukaryotic
cells, then multicellular organisms
Anaerobic prokaryotes > Photosynthetic prokaryotes > Eukaryotes > Multicellular
Endosymbiosis Theory
• Eukaryotic cells evolved from prokaryotes
• Early prokaryotes engulfed other prokaryotes
and developed symbiotic relationships
• Evidence includes mitochondria and
chloroplast have prokaryotic type DNA and
double membrane bound organelles
Abiogenesis
• Living from non-living or
spontaneous generation
• Disproved by Redi and
Pasteur’s experiments
Biogenesis
• Living from Living
Natural Selection
“survival of the fittest”
• Theory of Evolution
• Fit organisms
survive, reproduce,
and pass on traits
• Charles Darwin
• Lead to new species
• Acts on phenotypes
Requirements:
• Variation
• Competition
Peppered Moths
19th century
Industrialization & coal fires
led to air pollution
Killed lichens and blackened
tree trunks
White moths were more
obvious to predators
Black moths were
camouflaged and safe from
predators and more likely to
reproduce and produce
favorable offspring
20th century
reduce air pollution
tree trunks became cleaner
White colored moth was
camouflaged and
the dark colored moth was
more noticeable.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Stages of Natural Selection
Overproduction: more offspring are born than can survive
Genetic Variation: individuals in a population are varied
Struggle to Survive/Competition: only some individuals in a population
survive
Selection/successful reproduction: individuals that are well adapted to
their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce
Adaptations
• Beneficial trait
that increases
survival
• For Example,
– Beaks that make it
easier to eat
insects
– Bright flowers to
attract pollinators
– Vascular tissue in
plants to adapt to
life on land
• Homologous Structure:
same tissue, different
organism, different
function
• Vestigial Structure:
once had a function,
no longer has a
function
• Example:
human appendix,
whale’s hipbones
Speciation
• Emergence of a new species
• Members of the same species (breed and produce fertile
offspring) are separated by physical feature such as a river,
volcanic eruption, or earthquake may evolve separately in
different environments and lead to a new species
Antibiotic and Pesticide
Resistance
• Populations will
eventually
become resistant
to pesticides and
antibiotics with
overuse
Natural Selection
and
Antibiotic Resistance
Evidence for Evolution
•
•
•
•
Fossil Record (bones)
Biochemical Similarities (DNA)
Shared anatomical structures
Embryology
Fossil Record
• Older fossils can be
compared to more
recent ones to show
how species evolved
• Oldest fossilsbottom
• Newest fossilstop
• Sedimentary rocks
Biochemical Similarities (DNA)
• DNA provides the best evidence because it can tell
us exactly how closely related some organisms are
• DNA codes to make Proteins
Anatomical Structures
• Homologous Structuresame tissue, different
organisms, different function
• Common ancestor
• Analogous structuresdifferent tissue, different
organisms, same function
• No common ancestor
Coevolution
• Two organisms evolve
in response to each other
Ex. Flowering
plants and their
pollinators
Binomial Nomenclature
•
•
•
•
Two word naming system
Scientific name
Uses Genus and Species names
Ex. Dogs: Canis familiaris
Dichotomous
Keys
• Multi-step tool
used to
identify
organisms
• Paired set of
questions with
two choices
CLASSIFICATION-
based on evolutionary relationships
• Domain: broadest
category
• Species: most
specific category
(must be able to
interbreed and
produce fertile
offspring)
Levels of
Classification
“most complex” (domain) to
“most specific” (species)
Did
King
Philip
Come
Over
For
Good
Spaghetti
Cladogram
Outgroup
organism and
shows
relationships
based on
shared
derived
traits
Phylogenetic Tree
• Shows the evolutionary relationships of several species
branching from a common ancestor
• The closer the species are to each other on the tree, the
more closely related they are
• Common ancestor----bottom
Viruses
• Not considered living things
• Pathogens that can mutate to resist
vaccines
• Ex. HIV, Influenza,
Smallpox
Immune Response
B-cells
T-cells
• Fight antigens
in body fluids
• B-cells make
antibodies
• Make memory
cells after
exposure to
antigen
• Fight pathogens
inside living
cells
• May help Bcells to make
antibodies
• Make memory
cells after
exposure to
pathogen
Immunity
Passive Immunity
• Antibodies are
introduced into the
body
• Short term
• Such as mother
transfers antibodies to
infant through breast
feeding
Active Immunity
• Antibodies are acquired
when an immune
response is activated in
the body
• Long term
• Ex. Vaccines are
weak/dead antigens that
are introduced to the
body
Parasites
• Lives on or
within a host
• Benefits while
causing harm
to the host
• Ex. Plasmodium
causes malaria
(genetic influencecarriers of sickle
cell are resistant to
malaria)
Toxins
• Chemical that
causes harm
to the body
• Can be man-made or
produced by
microorganisms
• Ex. Mercury and
Lead
Questions for Standard 3
1.
What makes up the sides of the DNA ladder?
2.
What is found in between the bases of DNA?
3.
What does the sequence of DNA determine?
4.
What is transcription and where does it occur?
5.
What is being translated into amino acids?
6.
Which nucleic acid brings amino acids to the ribosomes?
7.
Describe the two types of proteins.
8.
What type of cells are created through meiosis? How is the number of
chromosomes in these cells different from the original cell?
9.
What are two ways do the new cells of mitosis compare to the new cells of
meiosis?
10. What are the ways that meiosis creates variation in offspring?
11.
What is the difference between heterozygous and homozygous?
12. Which of these would be a genotype? GG or green?
13. What is the difference between codominance and incomplete dominance? How
are they alike?
14. Why are males more likely than females to inherit sex-linked traits?
15. What two things can be found from a karyotype? Which chromosomes
represent the 23rd pair?
16. If two parents have a trait and their son or daughter do not, what is the
genotype of the parents? Is this a dominant or recessive trait?
17. How can PKU be prevented?
18. Having the condition of sickle cell anemia may prevent you from contracting
which other condition?
19. What are restriction enzymes used for?
20. Which fragments travel farther in gel electrophoresis?
21. Give one medical uses of transgenic bacteria.
22. What are some evidences of evolution?
23. What is geographic isolation?