MARRIAGE, FAMILY & KIN
Dr. Jane Granskog
Introduction
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overview of social organization
characteristics of kinship and descent
types of descent systems
forms of marriage, features and consequences
the incest taboo
family and household
extensions beyond the family - descent
systems
Overview of Social Organization
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significance of pair bonding--most expected
where both parents participate in care of
young regardless of period of dependency
sharing of food leading to the division of labor
restructuring of internal and external relations
of bands leads to interdependence of groups,
alliances based on marriage and
correspondent kin ties established
Kinship v.s. Descent (Keesing)
The difference between kinship and
family/kin relations corresponds to the
difference between cultural categories
(defined in symbolic terms, aspect of the
ideational system) and social groups
(groupings of people organized by
categories and rules, social structure)
Definition of Kinship
A principle of social organization based on
a network of relations created by
geneological connections and social ties
modelled on the "natural" relations of
geneological parenthood (sex and
reproduction) however those may be
defined and have meaning within a given
cultural context
Distinctions between Kinship and
Descent - Features of Kinship
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defined with reference to the individual
(ego) or pairs of individuals
universally important
bilateral from the point of ego, connects
ever more distant relatives (unbounded)
relationships defined are relative to a
given person
Distinctions between Kinship and
Descent - Features of Descent
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defined with reference to an ancestor
(ancestress)
culturally recognized only in some societies
connects (thru relations with common ancestor)
only a limited class of ego's relatives
descent status is absolute, you are or are not a
member of a particular descent group
Distinctions between kinship,
marriage and descent
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In a narrow sense kinship (defined in terms of
parents and children) contrasts with both
marriage and descent
relations by marriage are relations of affinity
(in-laws = affines)
relations by blood define consanguinity
(consanguines) and are the basis of descent
groups
Types of Descent Systems
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Bilateral kinship – matrilateral kin vs patrilateral kin
– personal kindred (ego's relatives on both
sides, unbounded);
– cognatic descent groups
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Unilineal Descent Systems
– patrilineal - descent through males
– matrilineal - descent through females
Unilineal Descent Groups
lineage (trace ties to known common
ancestor);
 clan (trace ties to unknown common
ancestor);
 phratry (grouping of clans; if only two
groupings = moiety)
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Definition of Marriage
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a socially recognized union of two or more
individuals usually but not always of the
opposite sex, that transforms the status of the
participants (specifies rights & duties of each)
carries implications about permitted sexual
access,
gives the offspring a position in society
(legitimization of offspring)
Definition of Marriage
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establishes continuing connections between
the kin of each party
is always symbolically marked in some way
(usually by public ceremony)
Almost universally present, establishes the
bonds that are the basis of household and
family systems
Case of the Na (tribal people in S. China) with
no marriage in fact or word; man “visits” at
night with no enduring relationship; exception
to key role of descent and alliances in kinship
Forms of Marriage
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exogamy - marriage outside the group
endogamy - marriage within the group
monogamy, serial monogamy - one man, one
woman (two individuals)
polygamy - plural spouses (great majority of
societies within ethnographic record permit
some form, usually polygyny)
Forms of Polygamy
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polygyny - multiple wives, if sisters = sororal
polygyny
polyandry - multiple husbands, if brothers =
fraternal polyandry; if unrelated men =
associated (Sinhalese, Sri Lanka), extended
form in polygynandry
secondary marriage (N. Nigeria & N.
Cameroon) - woman has 2+ husbands while
remaining married to first
Reasons for Prevalence of Polygyny
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long postpartum sex taboo coupled with
low-protein diet
most significant - in noncommercial
societies, an excess of females over males
due to high loss of males in warfare
pathogen stress, selective advantage for
polygyny (along with sex ratio imbalance)
Reasons for Polyandry
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found rarely - Tibetans, Sherpa & Toda of
India, Marquesans in E. Polynesia (Murdock)
Tibet - land tenure, polyandry discourages
partition of land , keeps brothers together;
Pahari (Indo-Aryan, Himilayas), marriage
practices - lack of wealth/bride price
restrains population growth in harsh
environments; other mechanisms primogeniture, ultimogeniture
Other Variations in Marriage Practices
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sororate - man marries his dead wife’s sister
levirate - woman marries her dead husband’s
brother
cousin marriage (43% of Murdock’s sample) cross-cousin marriage (FaSiSo or MoBrSo);
parallel-cousin marriage (rare, usually
FaBrDa --lineage endogamy, Bedouin)
Marriage and the Incest Taboo
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Definition of Incest - engaging in sexual
relations (outside of marriage but more
inclusive than just adultery) with individuals
defined as “close kin” (how close kin are
defined may vary considerably)
Distinct from proscriptions regarding marriage
i.e., exogamy, endogamy; is always defined as
intra-group
significance of joking v.s. avoidance relations
Factors Affecting Presence of Incest
Taboo & How It is Defined
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structure of the family and larger kin groups
role relations within the family
nature of the larger socio-economic-political
sphere - widest extension in less complex
(tribal) societies (e.g., Cheyenne); least
extensive in industrialized societies (primary
kin, nuclear family)
Explanations for the Incest Taboo
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no single universal explanation, are a number
of considerations
no universal horror of incest - is a range of
variation in attitudes in defferent societies re:
incest (some are horrified, others indifferent,
depends on context)
early human history; adaptive advantage
(short life span, lack of age appropriate
partners)
Explanations for the Incest Taboo
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promote family harmony, Malinowski; Freud jealousy within family, not supported
Westermarck - “familiarity breeds contempt”,
(lack of attraction between family members,
situational, psychological factors leading to
avoidance); supported by evidence from
other primates, Kibbutz, N. Taiwan (“minor”
marriages); missing sexual-agonistic link
Explanations for the Incest Taboo
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taboo promotes alliances with other groups
(Levi-Strauss, Cohen); insufficient
explanation by itself, helps explain existence
in noncommercial/tribal societies where
kinship is key to social organization
biological advantages of taboo - likelihood of
maladaptive consequences of inbreeding
that cultures may interpret in various ways
Explanations - Incest Taboo - Cohen
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Makes distinction between “core incest
taboo” (blood relatives, nuclear family) vs
“extended incest taboo” (kin outside core)
Core incest taboo applies to need for
individual privacy within boundary
maintenance groups (networks in which
people establish socio-emotional identity)
Explanations for the Incest Taboo Cohen
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sexual relations within core group threaten
psychological well being of individual & survival
of the group;
socialization of individuals requires forming
bonds with caretakers (authority figures) & later
separation (to establish boundaries) from them
“extended incest taboo” - need for alliances
with other groups, search for relations/mates
outside own group to cement ties; taboo
relaxed if there is a shortage of acceptable
women
Evaluation of Incest in America
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Characteristics of those who commit incest fa-da incest most common; usually a form of
child molestation; prevalence/ reported
incidence much higher within past 30 years
evaluate in context of societal characteristics
- blended families, kinship ties no longer as
important; presence of male dominance;
families who are isolated from societal
mainstream (e.g. case of “Brown family, S.
America; “Erva” family, U.S)
Arranged Marriage vs Romantic Love
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marriage by capture, usually women who are captured;
control over marital choice rarely left to daughters;
parental consent important in most societies (especially
for women)
if left to choice, one marries those one knows, emphasis
on personal qualities of potential mates & opportunities
to meet them; romantic love more important in societies
with nuclear vs extended families & where there is less
subsistence dependence
Courtship and Marriage
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Key changes in American society in 21st
century - decline in dating, emergence of the
“hook-up” among college students
Increased acceptance & prevalence of
cohabitation; easier availability of sex outside
marriage; later age of marriage (27 for men,
25+ women);
Impact of sexual revolution(s); continued
inequality in gender relations (double
standard) both inside & outside the marital
relationship
Marital Transactions
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transactions reflect kind of property that is
present in society
bride price, bride service - compensation for
loss of bride’s work where women contribute
heavily to production (labor) and/or contribute
indirectly thru sons
dowry - characteristic of agricultural based
class societies with stratification & where there
is potential for instability in status rankings
Marital Transactions
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relation between marital choice and other
marriage customs - affair between partners vs
arrangement within larger kin network;
marriage celebrations, a means by which
men establish reproductive claims (also true
of couvade); more elaborate ceremonies,
more claims on children
perception of role of marriage within society
reflected in status of males and females & in
recent debates surrounding gay marriages
Variations in Marital Relations
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sex in marriage - usually frequent except during
menstruation, pregnancy, or after childbirth
(postpartum sex taboo); attitudes toward marital
sex reflect views of sex in general; also related
to marital choice
extramarital sex - not uncommon for women or
men in majority of societies, more often
disproved of but with much variation in
punishment - significance of the double standard
Variations in Marital Relations
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extramarital sex - related to interest in
creating/reinforcing useful alliances (wife
trading)
monogamous couples usually sleep together;
polygynous, co-wives separate quarters
relation between spousal aloofness, warfare &
marrying one’s enemies (Mae Enga, Papua
New Guinea vs Trobrianders)
Variations in Marital Relations
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jealousy - problem rooted in disposition of
resources, more often among unrelated cowives (competition for favors, economic
concerns)
male jealousy - related to importance of
marriage to adult status & limiting of sex to
marital relationship; more likely where private
property important
Variations in Marital Relations
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spousal violence - assault common in U.S.,
wife-beating most common form crossculturally
prevalence is related to broader cultural
patterns of adult violence & male
dominance
Divorce & Remarriage
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considerable variation in tolerance & rates of
divorce; closely tied to changing gender roles
and degree of inequity between genders; most
common causes directly or indirectly related to
infidelity or infertility
Grounds for divorce: 1st - adultery (often
viewed as woman’s fault); 2nd - sterility; 3rd cruelty/mistreatment; 4th - being “displeasing”
most common reason cross-culturally, directly
or indirectly, failure to have children
Divorce & Remarriage
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women seek divorce on grounds of
incompatibility, failure to fulfill economic
duties, physical violence (1995, U.S, 70%
of divorced mothers report incidence of
violence -- S&S, p. 197), costs of marriage
culture
men seek divorce primarily on grounds of
failure to have children though often cite
incompatibility; infidelity cited as third in
importance (more often expressed in
violent retaliation for extramarital affairs)
Divorce & Remarriage
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divorce difficult, then remarriage also
difficult; more so for women than men; men
more likely to remarry
gender inequality and interdependence limit
grounds on which women seek divorce,
more restrictions in male-focused societies
Divorce and Remarriage
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Features of divorce culture -- global rates
doubled in developed world 1970-90, related
to changes in family complexity and stability;
de-gendering rights & responsibilities within
marital context - who does what; focus on
relational quality of marriage
Costs of divorce - impact on children;
consequences for “blended”/ stepfamilies
Divorce & Remarriage
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degree of female independence, female
status (gender equality), high spousal
interdependence are all related to rates of
divorce - increase in gender equality often
increases divorce
remarriage - patterns of levirate & sororate found where marriages stabilize and reinforce
bonds between families & kin groups
Postmarital Residence (who goes where
& why)
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neolocality - new residence, relatively rare,
recent practice - emerging primarily within
last several 100 years, industrialized
societies
patrilocality (virilocal) - couple goes to live
near or with groom’s family; associated with
patrilineal descent; most common pattern;
significant negative effect on women’s status
(loss to family upon marriage)
Postmarital Residence (who goes
where & why)
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matrilocality (uxorilocal) - couple goes to live
near or with bride’s family; associated with
matrilineal descent & higher status of women
(due to participation in subsistence)
bilocality - couple goes to live with or near
either set of parent (one with more resources);
rare, associated with depopulation
Postmarital Residence (who goes
where & why)
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avunculocality - couple lives with or near
husband’s mother’s brother; found in some
matrilineal societies (Trobriand Islands); rare
because exists when there is a need to keep
men related thru females together
duolocality - husband and wife live apart after
marriage
Determinants of Postmarital Residence
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division of labor in primary subsistence
activities coupled with prevalence of internal vs
external warfare
men contribute most to subsistence - patrilocal;
women contribute most to subsistence (with
only external war) - matrilocal;
if people fight among selves (internal warfare) patrilocal
Determinants of Postmarital Residence
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Basis of given residence forms are
interrelated with environmental pressures matrilocal systems where males are brought
in - offer flexibility in horticultural societies
In general, systems are more or less flexible
and change when environmental and social
pressures make it necessary.
Family and Household
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Definition of the family at a minimum includes
one economically & socially responsible parent
with a child; is the basic building block of
society.
Is identifiable by informants in terms of primary
functions - minimal unit that cooperates in
production & distribution, is responsible for the
socialization of young, & makes alliances with
like units
Family vs Household
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significant role relationships - conjugal &
parental bonds; maternal bond is the irreducible
minimum although cross-culturally this is rare
form the family takes is a result of the
adaptation to the social and physical context
Are always preferred family forms that do not
always conform to actual groups present (ideal
vs real)
Family v.s. Household
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Not all families are domestic groups (i.e.,
households), not all domestic groups are
families
Many extended families may in fact be nonresidential units with multi-economic enterprises
household - “set of relationships which
describes the association of an individual over a
24 hr. period” (R. Adams)
Types of Family
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Independent/conjugal/nuclear and variants one conjugal bond, two generations
Extended families - two or more conjugal
bonds, two or more generations; may be
extended horizontally through marriage (e.g.,
polygyny) or sibling ties (consanguinally
extended) and/or extended vertically through
descent (three+ generations--patrilineal,
matrilineal, joint fraternal)
Features of Independent Families
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Found in hunting & gathering societies as well
as industrialized societies where economic
functions do not require large permanent work
force
Characterized by sociological independence
(personal identity - individual)
Strengths - mobility, privacy, independence
Limitations - instability, lack of continuity
Features of Extended Families
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Found primarily in horticultural/agricultural societies with
incompatible activity requirements (acts require being in
two places at once)
Characterized by sociological interdependence
(personal identity - group)
Strengths - economy, security, flexibility (replicability of
roles)
Limitations - emphasis on conformity & obedience (lack
of individual initative), internal friction, “dominance” by
elders
Summary Points
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There is always some form of ideal & actual family
group that have above noted functions
Unusual examples like the Kibbutz (Israel) & Nayar of
India illustrate the non-universality of the nuclear family
Problems with categories (ideal case) - emphasis must
be given to a processual approach, functions of family
within socio-historical context as a unit that changes
over time (developmental cycle)
Summary Points
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distinction between family of orientation and
family of procreation
“Friends as family” - criteria for chosen kin
– have enough history to suggest future, are
involved in important parts of each other’s
lives
– are accessible in emergencies
– love, commitment, continuity - material out of
which kinship is made
Unilineal Descent
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groups defined by kinship, contain an ideology
(set of beliefs, myths and symbols that underlie
collective identity); are based on principle of
inclusion
found in about two thirds of all known societies
in addition to kinship, are also based on
common interest (economic, political, etc) &
serve to organize activities for members
(regulate marriage, define alliance & cooperation
between kin groups--mutual aid and support)
Unilineal Descent Groups
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Must be viewed as an adaptation to the social
and physical context - develop (as does
private property) in response to competition &
conflict over potential resources (non-state
societies with warfare)
found in societies with midrange complexity
(nonindustrial agriculture, no complex state);
disappear in urban-industrial societies where
non-kin agencies or state take over functions
Patrilineal v.s. Matrilineal Descent
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patrilineal systems statistically dominant pastoral, male dominance in division of labor +
need for mobility; so to with many horticultural &
agricultural societies; presence of warfare is a
critical factor
matrilineal descent - result of relatively
specialized adaptations to ecological conditions
- largish sedentary communities wherein
division of labor is such that crucial agricultural
tasks are done by women
Patrilineal v.s. Matrilineal Descent
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matrilineal & patrilineal descent groups are not
functionally the mirror opposites of one another men, important political role in all societies
to produce M.D.G.’s - men of the consanguineal
group have to associate with the women of the
group; not so with women in P.D.G.’s
problem for M.D.G.’s - combine rules of
exogamy with system of rights and duties based
on descent thru females
Forming Matrilineal Descent Groups
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keep all members of consanguinal group
together - consanguinal matrilineal group with
natalocal residence - Nayar, Black Carib
keep females together, disperse males matrilocal residence, brittle marriages, difficult
under conditions of land scarcity - Navajo, Hopi
keep men together, disperse women avunculocal residence with patrilocal marriage Trobriand Islanders
Patrilineal Descent Groups
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strategy - get rid of sisters, obtain wives;
manifest control over wives including
reproductive rights (in contrast to matrilineal
groups - hang on to sisters, forget husbands)
note distinction between descent group
(partially localized) and descent category
(higher order of inclusion) - important re:
systems of segmentary opposition
Patrilineal Descent Groups - Variations
Tungus, Siberia - egalitarian, reindeer
herders, lineages integrate groups
 symmetrically segmented lineages
(i.e., segmentary opposition) exist
where they must be clear about
obligations and allies when fighting Tiv, Africa
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Patrilineal Descent Groups - Variations
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conical descent groups - Tahitians, Nootka,
Northwest Coast - chiefdoms with descent
groups differentially ranked in prestige, privilege
and obligations
Chinese tzu - segmentation neither symmetrical
or function of genealogy, reflects socio-economic
position in society; function in complex state
societies; key - ancestral estate for focal
ancestor
Double Unilineal Descent
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includes both matrilineal and patrilineal
descent groups - works if individuals belong to
mother’s group for some purposes, father’s
groups for other purposes
Yako, E. Nigeria - localized patriclans (political
& landholding units) and dispersed matriclans
(inherit moveable goods--livestock, priesthood)
Double Unilineal Descent
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differs from complementary filiation (relations
with opposite relatives --e.g, mother’s
patrilineal kin/agnates) and ambilineal descent
(trace descent from common ancestor of either
males OR females)
often found where there is a transition from one
system to another (e.g., patrilineal groups
moving into territory of a matrilineal society)
Forms of Cognatic Descent
Two basic types of cognatic groupings:
 ego focus - personal kindred - group of kin all
of whom have a relative in common;
unbounded; same personnel only for siblings;
defined bilaterally; can’t be corporate unless
there is a special rule (eg. primogeniture)
limiting membership (stem kindreds)
 ancestor focus - nonunilineal descent group sept; ambilineal descent group, ramage - no
consensus on terms
Cognatic Descent Groups
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kindreds always involve some collateral
limitation on extension of positions - may not
be the same on both sides - skewed kindreds
C.D.G.’s tend to be found mostly among
island populations - may be a breakdown of
patrilineal systems due to population
pressure; advantages lie in flexibility of the
system
Cognatic Descent Groups
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C.D.G.’s constitute all relatives from common
ancestor (no restrictions on gender). Take three
forms:
unrestricted - non-residential, all descendents of
founder are members
restricted - those who locate in founder’s territory
exercise rights of inheritance
pragmatically restricted - all descendants remain
members, choose group in which to activate rights
Summary Points
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whether larger kin groups focus on women or
men profoundly affects the nature of the family,
family relations, roles women & men play, on
their opportunities and constraints & on their
relative social positions
nature of war (internal vs purely external)
largely predicts whether couples live with
husband’s or wife’s kin.
Summary Points
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residence not only shapes the composition of
larger kin groups, it also influences
composition of the extended household
kind of descent group to which one belongs female vs male focused - influences sexuality
- degree to which it is restricted for each
gender before & after marriage
Summary Points
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coincidence of polygyny & patrilocality in
societies with internal warfare can greatly
exaggerate husband-wife avoidance & affects
degree of political participation of women
(degree of spousal aloofness)
women tend to have the highest status in
foraging & horticultural societies where they
contribute significantly to subsistence & where
there is an emphasis on harmony
Summary Points
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patrilineality, patrilocality, conflict , and social
stratification often translate into limited
autonomy & opportunities for women
modernization generally results in a decrease
in status of women in traditional societies
Summary Points
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positon of women in industrialized societies gain in autonomy in general but with loss of
safety net provided by kin that is not
compensated for by other institutions “feminization of poverty” in U.S.
increase in societal complexity has meant less
reliance on extended kin networks & has
sometimes led to new kinds of networks
emerging
New Approaches to the Study of Kin
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Structural Approach - Culture as an
ideational/symbolic system; new modification analysis of cultural knowledge underlying social
relations (emic view); analysis of cognitive maps
people use to guide behavior
Processual Approach - Family system dynamics,
network analysis; focus on actual behavior,
strategies for attaining goals, networks used to
adapt to a changing environment
Schneider - American Kinship
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Analysis of the meaning of “relative” in
American culture - basic terms
(mo/da/fa/so/br/si/hu/wi) & derivative
(modifiers - step/in-law/great/grand restrictive & unrestricted)
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Kinship defined biogenetically: Order of
Blood - never severed, relationship of
identity, substance; Order of Law - not by
nature, can be terminated
Three classes of relatives: In nature alone; by
nature & law; by law alone
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Schneider & Homans - American
Kinship Terminology
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primary importance of the nuclear family,
secondarily, the kindred
elaborate role differentiation within the nuclear
family reflected in use of situationally based
alternate terms (emphasis on achieved status &
authority)
kinship system embodies essence of dominant
values of the whole culture
Bott - Family & Social Networks
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focus on social networks & role relations
between spouses in London neighborhoods
if husbands & wives come to marriage with
close-knit networks which remain important after
marriage, there is a more rigid conjugal role
separation
if spouses have loosely knit networks upon
marriage or afterwards, more attention is given
to conjugal relation & sharing of tasks
Wagner & Schaffer - Social Networks &
Survival Strategies
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Study of variations in patterns of cooperation &
resource specialization in the social networks of
Mexican-American, Anglo and Black female
headed housholds in San Jose
Mexican American women - larger networks, kin
based (typically 11 or more kin); greater
resource specialization
Anglos & Blacks - smaller (average 4) kin
networks; relied more on few close friends &
commercial resources for aid
Matrifocal/Matricentric Families
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Stack refers to them as "domestic networks"
with flexible boundaries centering on the
maternal bond and consanguinal kin frequently associated with the culture of
poverty.
Tanner argues that the principle of matrifocality,
is present within a variety of societies with a
variety of kinship structures (e.g., patrilineal,
matrilineal, etc.)
CONCEPT OF MATRIFOCALITY
DEFINITION: societies wherein the role
of MOTHER is STRUCTURALLY,
CULTURALLY, and AFFECTIVELY
central and wherein that CENTRALITY
is LEGITIMATELY recognized by
society.
MATRIFOCALITY
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Found where there is an egalitarian emphasis
regarding gender roles, both women's and
men's roles important.
May exist at different levels within the kinship
structure
Concept is distinct from the notion of "MOMISM"
wherein the central role of mother is NOT
viewed positively or legitimately recognized.
Geile - Changing U.S. Family
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changed gender roles reflected in family
structure - increase in numbers of working
women, demographic changes in life cycle;
emphasis now is on flexibility over life span re:
tasks carried out at each age & in gender-typing
of tasks; more awareness that responsibilities
for parenthood & housework are carried out
much more by women (“double day”)
changes noted in stage 1 (pre-industrial/peasant
extended family), stage 2 (traditional nuclear) &
stage 3 (symmetrical - both working) families
“Decline of the Family” - Views on
Changing American Family (Geile)
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Crisis state of American family and children in 1990’s working mothers, rising divorce, increase in teenage
suicides, birth rates, etc
Conservative model - family decline due to moral decay
-- loss of traditional family values; revitalize marriage as
solution
Liberal analysis - changing economic structures lead to
changes in family structure and gender roles, increased
diversity of forms, fixing the safety net
Feminist Analysis - focus on interdependence,
cooperation within community, strengthening civil
society - value of quality of life & human relationships
Lindsey - Non Biological Families
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discusses myths of the “happy traditional family”
& of marriage
points out increasing importance of nonbiological kin; significance of enmeshed vs
disengaged families of orientation
types of non-biological family
– honorary relative
– workplace & neighborhood families
– chosen family (positive & negative)
Summary Points
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changes in conception of family & kin
according to changes in socio-economic
context; emergence of new forms of family
importance of world view - consequences of
independent complex, linear vs cyclical world
views; emergence of new paradigm transmodernists/”cultural creatives”