5th Edition
Psychology
Stephen F. Davis
Emporia State University
Joseph J. Palladino
University of Southern Indiana
PowerPoint Presentation by
Cynthia K. Shinabarger Reed
Tarrant County College
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Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-1
Chapter 10
5th Edition
Sex and Gender
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-2
Sex and Gender: An Introduction
• The word sex refers to a biological
classification based on genetic
composition, anatomy, and hormones.
• Gender refers to the psychological and
social phenomena associated with being
feminine or masculine as these concepts
are defined in a given culture.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-3
Sex and Gender: An Introduction
• Hermaphrodites have both ovarian and
testicular tissues.
• Pseudohermaphrodites possess two
gonads of the same kind, but their external
genitalia and secondary sex
characteristics do not match their
chromosomal makeup.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-4
Sex and Gender: An Introduction
• Genetic inheritance is the most basic
determinant of whether an individual is
male or female.
• The 23rd pair of chromosomes determines
a person's sex.
• A male has an X and a Y chromosome,
whereas a female has two X
chromosomes.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-5
Sex and Gender: An Introduction
• Early in development, human embryos
have an undifferentiated, or all-purpose,
gonad (sex gland) that can become either
a testis or an ovary.
• The presence of a Y chromosome directs
this undifferentiated gonad to develop into
a testis.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-6
Sex and Gender: An Introduction
• Genetic abnormalities that occur at
conception can have major implications for
later development.
• Genetic abnormalities include Klinefelter's
syndrome (XXY), in which a male has
smaller-than-normal genitals, enlarged
breasts, poor muscular development, and
may be mentally retarded.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-7
Sex and Gender: An Introduction
• Males are more vulnerable than females to
developmental disorders and certain fatal
diseases.
• Males have a greater chance of experiencing
developmental difficulties such as reading
problems and delayed speech, environmental
health problems (such as cancer resulting
from exposure to a toxic substance), and
physical diseases.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-8
Sex and Gender: An Introduction
• Among the possible causes are biological
factors, social roles, differing stressors men
and women face, gender differences in
behavioral risk factors, and gender
differences in personality.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-9
Sex and Gender: An Introduction
• The action of hormones during the embryonic
and fetal stages as well as during adolescence
gives rise to what is termed anatomical sex.
• In males an increase in the level of testosterone
at puberty is responsible for the development and
growth of the penis and testes as well as the
secondary sex characteristics.
• In females an increase in estrogen at puberty is
responsible for the growth of the uterus and the
vagina and the development of the secondary
sex characteristics.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-10
Sex and Gender: An Introduction
• Development during puberty consists of
changes that occur in a range of physical
attributes, from height and weight to
changes associated with sexual maturation
that make sexual reproduction possible.
• The most basic change in boys is growth of
the penis and scrotum.
• In girls, menarche—the first menstrual
period—is an indication of sexual maturity.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-11
Sex and Gender: An Introduction
• Adrenogenital syndrome is a condition
caused by exposure to excessive amounts
of androgens during the fetal period; it can
result in a female with genitals resembling
those of males.
• Androgen insensitivity syndrome refers
to failure by a male embryo to respond to
male hormones.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-12
Sex and Gender: An Introduction
• Human sexual behavior is a function of the
complex interplay of genetic, prenatal, and
environmental factors; thus human beings
are not slaves to their hormone levels.
• Both men and women have measurable
quantities of the hormones estrogen,
progesterone, and testosterone.
• The amounts of these hormones, however,
differ in men and women.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-13
Sex and Gender: An Introduction
• Sexual orientation is the tendency for a person to
be attracted to members of the same sex, the
other sex, or both sexes.
• The term homophobia refers to an irrational fear
of homosexuality often manifested in prejudice
and hate crimes (gay bashing) against gay men
and lesbians.
• Growing evidence suggests that biological factors
play an important role in the development of
sexual orientation.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-14
Sex and Gender: An Introduction
• The testes are the primary sex organs in males;
they are located in the scrotum, which is a saclike structure beneath the penis.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-15
Sex and Gender: An Introduction
• Semen is ejaculated through the penis,
which also serves to rid the body of urine.
• The shaft of the penis is composed
primarily of erectile tissue, which fills with
blood during an erection.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-16
Sex and Gender: An Introduction
The vagina is
an elastic
muscular tube
that extends
between a
woman’s
cervix and her
external
genitalia.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-17
Sex and Gender: An Introduction
•
The vagina serves several purposes:
a) it provides a passageway to eliminate
menstrual fluids;
b) it receives the penis during sexual
intercourse and holds the sperm
before their passage to the uterus; and
c) during childbirth, it forms the lower
portion of the birth canal.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-18
Sex and Gender: An Introduction
•
•
•
The two ovaries produce ova (or eggs) and
also secrete the hormones estrogen and
progesterone.
The human sexual response cycle moves
through several stages: excitement, plateau,
orgasm, and resolution.
In comparison to lower animals, human sexual
behavior is not as controlled by purely
biological factors such as hormones.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-19
Sex and Gender: An Introduction
• Surveys of sexual activity among adolescents
reveal several trends over past decades:
earlier initiation of intercourse, increased
premarital intercourse, a greater number of
partners, and ineffective and inconsistent use
of contraceptives.
• Males and females differ in a number of ways
in their attitudes and behavior concerning
sexual behavior.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-20
Sex and Gender: An Introduction
• A sexual dysfunction is a persistent
impairment of sexual interest or response
that causes interpersonal difficulties or
personal distress.
• Hypoactive sexual desire disorder
refers to persistently or recurrently
deficient (or absent) sexual fantasies and
desire for sexual activity.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-21
Sex and Gender: An Introduction
• People with sexual aversion disorder have an
active dislike and avoidance of genital contact
with sexual partners.
• Men with erectile disorder have recurrent partial
or complete failure to attain or maintain an
erection during sexual activity.
• The term impotence was used in the past to
describe this condition, but it is no longer used.
• Premature ejaculation, occurs when a man
reaches orgasm in a sexual encounter long
before he or his partner wishes it to occur.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-22
Sex and Gender: An Introduction
• Two dysfunctions involve the reporting and
experience of pain associated with sexual
activity.
• Dyspareunia involves recurrent or persistent
genital pain before, during, or after sexual
intercourse.
• Vaginismus affects only females and involves
recurrent or persistent involuntary spasms of the
outer muscles of the vagina, which makes
intercourse either difficult or impossible.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-23
Sex and Gender: An Introduction
• Most children between the ages of 2 and 3
can label themselves as boys or girls; they
can also classify other people as members
of the same or the other sex.
• Children learn how gender roles, or
behaviors considered appropriate for
males and females in a given culture,
relate to clothing, games, tools, and toys.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-24
Sex and Gender: An Introduction
• According to Freud’s psychodynamic
theory, young boys develop a sexual
attraction to their mother and young girls
develop a similar attraction to their father.
• Children soon learn, however, that they
cannot prevail in any competition against
the parent of the same sex.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-25
Sex and Gender: An Introduction
• Thus the child settles for the attention that
results from identifying with the parent of
the same sex.
• If the child becomes like that parent, he or
she will take on that parent’s
characteristics and acquire what society
deems to be appropriate gender roles.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-26
Sex and Gender: An Introduction
• Observational learning theory proposes
that children learn gender roles from
parents (or other caregivers) through
rewards and punishments, along with
imitation and modeling.
• Cognitive developmental theory is an
explanation for the learning of gender
roles that holds that cognitive factors give
rise to gender identity, gender stability, and
gender constancy.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-27
Sex and Gender: An Introduction
• Gender-schema theory is an explanation
for the learning of gender roles that
suggests that children form schemas of
masculine and feminine attributes, which
influence memory, perception, and
behaviors.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-28
Sex and Gender: An Introduction
• A stereotype is a set of socially shared
beliefs that we hold about members of a
particular group.
• Stereotypes can be limiting and can
constitute a form of social control.
• The use of stereotypes based on sex is
reflected in behaviors ranging from the
courses students select to the occupations
people enter.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-29
Sex and Gender: An Introduction
• By the age of 5, most children around the world
associate being aggressive and strong with
males and being appreciative and soft-hearted
with females.
• Developmental psychologists have found that
gender stereotyping continues into middle
adulthood.
• By age 8, children have learned a great deal
about the concepts of masculinity and femininity.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-30
Sex and Gender: An Introduction
• In most studies of gender stereotypes,
characteristics viewed as masculine (for
example, being adventurous) are
described as instrumental or agentic (taskoriented) because they emphasize
achievement, assertiveness, and
independence.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-31
Sex and Gender: An Introduction
• The characteristics associated with being
feminine (for example, meekness) have
been labeled expressive or communal;
they are associated with emotional
responses as well as interactions and
relationships with other people.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-32
Sex and Gender: An Introduction
• Individuals who have high levels of
characteristics associated with both males
and females are termed androgynous.
• Gender stereotypes are not limited to a set
of adjectives; they include prescriptions for
behaviors, occupations, and physical
appearance.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-33
Sex and Gender: An Introduction
• Parents are not a child’s only source of
information concerning gender
stereotypes; relatives, peers, teachers,
and the mass media also influence
stereotypes.
• In television commercials, men and
women are portrayed much the same way
they were portrayed three decades ago.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-34
Sex and Gender: An Introduction
• Women are likely to be represented with
domestic products, men with nondomestic
products.
• The print media, from elementary school
textbooks to newspapers to comic strips,
present and strengthen messages about
what is appropriate for women and men.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-35
Similarities and Differences
Between Males and Females
• Obvious physical differences exist between
males and females in hormones, physical size,
and musculature.
• In the ultimate game of life, however, females
are the winners.
• Females have a longer life expectancy than
males.
• Most physical differences have less impact
today in industrialized and technologically
advanced societies than was true in earlier eras.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-36
Similarities and Differences
Between Males and Females
• Magnetic resonance imaging and positron
emission tomography scans suggest the
existence of some slight structural differences in
the brains of men and women.
• Many contemporary researchers have
concluded that the differences, if any, are small
and unlikely to account for differences in
everyday behaviors.
• What’s more, such differences are open to
varying interpretations.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-37
Similarities and Differences
Between Males and Females
• Meta-analyses have revealed a range of
gender differences from small to large,
depending on the particular behavior or
characteristic examined.
• Although meta-analysis can tell us
whether a difference exists and its
approximate size, it cannot tell us how the
difference originated.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-38
Similarities and Differences
Between Males and Females
• In the past, females were reported to
outperform males in verbal ability.
• The difference has narrowed to the point
where it is essentially zero.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-39
Similarities and Differences
Between Males and Females
• Males seem to perform better than females on
tasks involving mathematical and spatial ability,
although the difference is narrowing rapidly.
• The difference in mathematical ability seems
limited to nonclassroom tests; in class, girls
obtain higher grades in mathematics than boys.
• Gender stereotypes and differential opportunities
may have an impact on differences in
mathematical and spatial ability.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-40
Similarities and Differences
Between Males and Females
• The most consistent finding concerning
spatial ability is that males outperform
females on mental rotation tasks.
• Men are better at manipulating objects in
space; women are better at locating
objects.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-41
Similarities and Differences
Between Males and Females
• A number of researchers have noted that
men and women view communication
differently.
• For most women, communication is a
primary way to establish and maintain
relationships.
• By contrast, men tend to view
communication as a way of exerting their
control, preserving independence, and
enhancing status.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-42
Similarities and Differences
Between Males and Females
• A meta-analysis of research on helping behavior
revealed that most of the data had been
collected in situations in which a person was
called to give or not give aid to a stranger on a
short-term basis.
• This kind of heroic helping is more consistent
with the traditional masculine role than with the
traditional feminine role that emphasizes helping
within established relationships, as when a
mother helps a daughter, her husband, or her
father.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-43
Similarities and Differences
Between Males and Females
• The vast majority of crime committed in
the United States is committed by men,
who are also responsible for more violent
crimes than are women.
• In a meta-analysis of laboratory studies of
aggression, Janet Hyde found that a
person’s sex accounted for a small
proportion of aggression in those studies.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-44
Similarities and Differences
Between Males and Females
•
A second meta-analysis of gender
differences in aggression found two
trends in research on the topic:
a) in unprovoked situations, men are
more aggressive than women, and
b) in provoked situations, the gender
difference is much smaller.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-45
Social Issues
• The perpetuation of gender stereotypes can
produce what has been termed sexism—
differential treatment of an individual on the
basis of his or her sex.
• This term is often used to describe
discrimination against women, such as
differential treatment in educational settings and
limited access to job opportunities, but it can
also be applied to discrimination against men.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-46
Social Issues
• There is clear evidence that males and
females receive differential treatment in
educational settings starting early in life.
• Elementary school teachers asked to
nominate their best students are more
likely to nominate boys than girls.
• The materials used in teaching classes
reflect a gender bias.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-47
Social Issues
• Boys are taught to be assertive and
independent, whereas girls are taught to
be dependent and passive.
• The patterns of sexism established in
elementary school classrooms often
continue into high school and higher
education.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-48
Social Issues
• A survey of social science graduate
students at several universities revealed
that virtually all respondents had observed
gender-biased behavior on the part of a
professor and that less than 5% had
reported the problem to someone in an
official capacity.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-49
Social Issues
• Science textbooks tend to perpetuate
gender stereotypes: They include
numerous pictures of male scientists but
few of female scientists.
• There is a deep-seated cultural bias
against science as an activity appropriate
for women that directs most girls away
from science even before they begin their
formal education.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-50
Social Issues
• When students are ready to enter the job
market, they continue to face the influence of
gender stereotypes.
• During recent decades, increasing numbers of
women have entered the workforce for both
personal and financial reasons.
• A person’s career choices are influenced by a
variety of factors, some of which can reduce the
influence of sexism on the individual.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-51
Social Issues
• The stark reality of the working world is that
women earn less than men.
• One reason for this gap is that women tend to
work in a rather narrow range of occupations—
for instance, as secretaries, as child-care
providers, and in the food service and health
care fields.
• Another reason is that women tend to take on
the primary responsibility of caring for the home
and family.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-52
Social Issues
• Compared to men, women are more likely
to be called upon to care for elderly
relatives, including parents.
• This situation has led to what has been
termed a second shift—a woman returns
home from work to take on the additional
responsibilities of caring for infirm
relatives.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-53
Social Issues
• Finally, there is discrimination that must be
dealt with in the workplace.
• Because discrimination is illegal, it tends
to be practiced in subtle ways.
• For example, women working in large
companies often encounter a glass
ceiling—a level to which women may rise
in a company but above which they are
not likely to go.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-54
Social Issues
•
Incidents of sexual harassment can take
two forms:
a) quid pro quo, in which a sexual
proposition is tied to either a direct
threat such as loss of a job or a direct
offer such as a promotion, and
b) a hostile work (or educational)
environment.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-55
Social Issues
• Over several decades, surveys have revealed
that sexual harassment in the workplace is
widespread.
• A number of surveys of the frequency of sexual
harassment converge on the conclusion that
approximately one out of every two U.S. women
has been harassed during her working life.
• Sexual harassment of men is rare; however,
reports of harassment of men tend to receive
significant media attention when they result in
legal proceedings.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-56
Social Issues
• Females of all ages, races, and marital
statuses have been harassed in the
workplace and in educational settings from
elementary school to medical school.
• The incidence of sexual harassment may
be higher in workplaces where women
have traditionally been underrepresented,
such as the trades, transit operations, and
firefighting.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-57
Social Issues
• The gender roles of the predominant group in
a workplace influence expectations not only
for the job but also for the treatment of
women.
• Most victims of sexual harassment try to
ignore the offensive behavior; consequently,
they do not file complaints, often fearing
retaliation or believing the organization will
not respond to their complaint.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-58
Social Issues
• In several workplace and school surveys,
significant numbers of women have
described incidents that would qualify as
instances of sexual harassment, yet only
about 5% of them have reported these
incidents to someone in authority, such as
a work supervisor.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-59
Social Issues
• Men and women do not differ in their
perceptions of sexual harassment in
explicitly coercive situations (for example,
fondling a student).
• Men, however, tend to view less explicit
instances (such as suggestive jokes or
comments about a women’s body) as
trivial or innocuous.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-60
Social Issues
• The way men and women perceive interpersonal
behaviors, especially women’s friendliness, may
be a key to understanding some incidents of
sexual harassment.
• The circumstances surrounding an event are
also important in determining whether that event
constitutes sexual harassment.
• A key factor is abuse of power.
• Several programs have been developed to train
people to recognize and deal with incidents of
sexual harassment.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-61
Social Issues
• Research shows that stereotyping of
behavior is more likely to occur when the
targeted person is isolated or somehow
stands out in a homogeneous
environment.
• Stereotyping is also more likely when
there is a perceived lack of fit between a
person’s category and the occupation in
question.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-62
Social Issues
• Women in leadership positions receive
lower evaluations than men, although the
difference is not large.
• A recent review of the effectiveness of
men and women in the role of leaders or
managers found that men and women
were equally effective.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-63
Social Issues
• Gender has the potential to influence
evaluations of managers, even though
there may be no general tendency to
devalue the managerial contributions of all
women.
• Many women face workplace obstacles
such as gender stereotyping that can have
detrimental effects on their chances for
advancement.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-64
Social Issues
• Over the course of three decades, the difference
in household labor and child care has decreased.
• The decrease seems to be due to two factors: (a)
women are spending less time on such activities
and (b) men are spending more time on such
activities.
• Yet there is still a large difference in the number
of hours men and women spend on household
chores and child care.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
10-65
Social Issues
• Many married women may have hoped that
when they entered the workplace, their
husbands would take on more of the
responsibility for caring for the children and the
home.
• For many, however, this hope has not been
realized.
• Faye Crosby uses the term jugglers to describe
women who perform both job and family roles.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
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Social Issues
• Contrary to expectations, Crosby found no
evidence that role jugglers experience
more stress than homemakers or other
women with fewer roles.
• In fact, their multiple roles appear to
insulate these women (and men also)
against depression.
Copyright © Prentice Hall 2007
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