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1929
The start of the Great Depression
Capitalism shattered, class conflicts on the rise everywhere
Revival of hopes for world revolution
The Comintern goes on the offensive against both the Right and the Center
Radicalization of right-wing forces
Political polarization
Global retreat of liberal democracy
In international relations – growing anarchy, return to traditional power politics

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Deep conviction that the international environment is hostile , and that the Soviet Union will be attacked
Solution : rapid modernization by totalitarian methods
 Extreme centralization of political power
 Replacement of market economy by command economy :
 5-year plans from 1928 on
 Collectivization of farming (93% of all farms by 1938)
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Industrialization of the Soviet Union (growth of industrial production, 1928-1940: 10-16% a year, machine tool production: 26% a year)
The Cultural Revolution – mass literacy campaign loaded with ideological indoctrination
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Mass repressions and slave labour
Stalin’s personality cult
 Militarization of economy and society
 Nationality policy: from federalism to empire

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March of Enthusiasts: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sq2XB
Z_up1M

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The human toll of Stalinism
Excessive deaths, 1927-38:
 10 mln. people
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8.5 mln. in 1927-36 (most died of hunger)
 1.5 mln. in 1937-38 (executed or died in camps)
Incarcerated for “counterrevolutionary activities”, “treason”,
“espionage”, 1920-1953:
 3.4-3.7 mln. people
Total number of camp deaths, 1930-1956:
 1.6 mln.

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A shift in foreign policy
From wariness of the West – to active engagement in world-order politics
Less ideology, more pragmatism
Non-aggression pacts
Development of trade and economic relations with all countries
After Hitler’s coming to power – campaign for collective security

Maksim Litvinov, People’s Commissar of Foreign Affairs, 1930-39

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The rise of Nazism http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6B4l9g0wqjs&feature=re lated
Anti-Communism
Ultranationalism
State capitalism packaged as “national socialism”
Militarism
Aggressive racism
Establishment of a totalitarian state

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nH0Et56Hxt4

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iaU_ak19YwY&feat ure=related

January 20, 1933: Franklin D. Roosevelt is inaugurated as US President: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MX_v0zxM23Q

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From Roosevelt’s inaugural address, January 20, 1933:
“ Rulers of the exchange of mankind's goods have failed through their own stubbornness and their own incompetence, have admitted their failure, and have abdicated . Practices of the unscrupulous money changers stand indicted in the court of public opinion, rejected by the hearts and minds of men.
True they have tried, but their efforts have been cast in the pattern of an outworn tradition. Faced by failure of credit they have proposed only the lending of more money. Stripped of the lure of profit by which to induce our people to follow their false leadership, they have resorted to exhortations, pleading tearfully for restored confidence....The money changers have fled from their high seats in the temple of our civilization. We may now restore that temple to the ancient truths. The measure of the restoration lies in the extent to which we apply social values more noble than mere monetary profit”.

Roosevelt decides to recognize the USSR
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Motives: geopolitical
 Containing Germany and Japan
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Sends a signal in October 1933, Soviet Foreign Minister
Maxim Litvinov arrives in Washington for talks
3 issues:
 Russian debt from WWI
 Suppression of religious and legal rights in USSR
 Soviet aid to American Communists
A “gentleman’s agreement” is reached
Nov. 1933: diplomatic relations are restored

The geopolitical triangle : Axis powers (Germany, Italy,
Japan), USSR, Western democracies (WDs)
WDs
Axis
USSR

Germany’s expansion,
1933-39

Fascism and Communism as sworn enemies
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Both sides tried to win allies
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Hitler : I am crushing communism and protecting Western civilization (ideological). It was in his interest to downplay geopolitics
Stalin
: I am trying to stop Hitler’s aggression (geopolitical). It was in his interest to downplay ideology
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Both succeeded to some extent:
 Hitler managed to overthrow the Versailles constraints, rebuild
Germany’s military power, and expand German borders
 Stalin gained US recognition and a degree of respectability in the West with his advocacy of “collective security” agreements against fascist powers

Stalin’s first choice:
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Policies of collective security ( alliance with democracies to stop Hitler)
After the failure of this option -
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A non-aggression pact with Hitler to stay out of the coming war and extend Soviet borders westward

Vyacheslav Molotov, People’s Commissar of Foreign Affairs,
Minister of Foreign Affairs (1939-1949)

The Spanish Civil War
Can democracy be sacrificed to defeat the Left?
Foreign intervention on both sides
Splits between forces of the Left, blunders of the Left
Victory of the Right, abetted by liberals

Brigadas Internacionales: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GMe-
IaK3cH0&feature=related

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Hitler publicly and repeatedly pledged to destroy the Soviet
Union, presenting himself as saviour of the West from communism
As a state committed to world revolution, Russia was viewed as a threat by Western elites – including those of
Western democracies
The rise of fascism was partly a response to the threat – and anticommunism was one of the motives of Western appeasement of Hitler http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TAmKGzYyVLI&feature
=related

Appeasement of Hitler and his allies by Britain and
France:
Allowing Germany’s rearmament
Accepting Hitler’s territorial claims
Betraying democracy in Spain
The Munich Accord of 1938
Motives for appeasement ideological geopolitical

Munich, September 30, 1938: Britain and France open door to Hitler’s occupation of Czechoslovakia

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British PM Neville Chamberlain in
Munich: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xQIJk gpP1hg http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FO725
Hbzfls&NR=1

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Britain and France hoped to channel Hitler’s aggression to the East, toward conflict with Russia – reluctant to fight
Germany
Hitler was determined to prevent Western democracies and USSR from joining forces: beat them one by one
Stalin was determined to avoid war with Germany as long as possible – but convinced that such a war was inevitable
1939: A divergence of interests between USSR and
Western democracies – and a convergence of interests between Germany and USSR
The unexpected deal was logical – but only temporary

Moscow, August 23, 1939: German Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop signs non-aggression pact with Russia

Text of the Stalin-Hitler (Molotov-Ribbentrop) Pact http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1939pact.html

Stalin and
Ribbentrop sign the deal on the division of Eastern
Europe,
Aug.1939

Stalin offers a toast to Hitler

A Swiss magazine cartoon

September 1, 1939: Nazi Germany invades Poland http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uNOqSSP1o94

German and Soviet invasions of Poland

Soviet and Nazi officers in occupied Poland, 1939

Polish servicemen who surrendered to Soviet authorities. In spring 1940, 22,000 Polish officers were executed by NKVD

Hitler and his High Command after occupation of France, summer 1940

1940: Hitler in occupied
Paris

Hitler and Mussolini in Munich, June 1940

1939-1941 : Stalin’s Western expansion
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Western Ukraine, Belorussia
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Invasion of Finland
Annexation of Bessarabia and Bukovina from Romania
Classic geopolitics: pushing the borders forward, reclaiming Russian imperial heritage

1939-1941 : growing tensions between USSR and Germany
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Germany’s unexpected triumph in the West emboldens
Hitler
Hitler’s strategic goal of conquering the USSR was never abandoned – for geopolitical and ideological reasons
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All resources of continental Europe are now available to
Germany

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By 1941, Stalin’s fear of German power became the overwhelming factor
He was appeasing Hitler – and preparing for war against him - at the same time
Each of the two intended to strike first
Hitler outfoxed Stalin and delivered a crushing blow

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1939-1941: Lowest point in US-Soviet relations since
1933
Roosevelt denounced Stalin
USSR viewed as an accomplice to the Nazis
Soviet annexation of the Baltic states and invasion of
Finland condemned
The German invasion of Russia changed everything

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Hitler explaining the coming war against Russia, March
1941:
“It is a struggle between two ideologies… Communism presents an enormous danger for the future . A communist has never been and never will be our comrade. It is a struggle for annihilation. If we think otherwise, then, even if we should crush the enemy, the communist threat will rise again in 30 years…”
From the diary of General F. Halder, Chief of Staff, Land
Forces, Germany:
This war will be vastly different from the one in the West. In the East, brutality is a benefit for the future. Commanders must be ready for sacrifice and overcome their doubts.”

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Hitler’s allies in the war against Russia:
Italy
Romania
Hungary
Finland
Slovakia
Croatia
Serbia
Montenegro
Bulgaria
Albania
Spain

Nazi propaganda poster: SS forces kill the
Red beast of communism

German poster depicting
Soviets: “The lower race”

A Soviet tank crew, killed June 25, 1941

Wounded Soviet soldiers

General von Richthoffen in Russia with his officers

Celebrating success in Lightning War

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In the first 10 days, German armies moved 550 km into
Soviet territory
In the first 20 days of the war, the Red Army lost 1/5 of its manpower – 600,000 men
By July, 20 mln. Soviets found themselves under occupation. Nazi terror began.
Still, despite the chaos and panic:
 Fierce resistance slowing the German offensive
 Evacuation of population
 Redeployment of industry to the East

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sailmeWkm_A

Moscow, October 1941

Women digging anti-tank moats near Moscow

Antitank barriers in downtown Moscow

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The Battle of Moscow
Sept. 1941 – Jan. 1942
98 days
 2.25 mln. men
 2.700 tanks
 21.600 artillery pieces
Casualties:
250,000 – 400,000 German
600,000 – 1,300,000 Soviet

November 7 th , 1941: military parade in Red Square

Georgi
Zhukov, commander of Soviet forces in the
Battle of
Moscow

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The Siege of Leningrad
Sept. 1941 – Jan. 1944
871 days
Soviet casualties:
 Military – 3.4 mln.
 Civilian deaths – 1 mln.
German casualties – no data

Hitler discussing siege of Leningrad with Finnish officials

Leningrad’s defenders

Schoolchildren in besieged Leningrad