Chapter 4
American Imperialism
Section 1: Imperialism: The Urge to Expand
William Seward – United States Secretary of State 1861-1869
A determined opponent of the spread of slavery in
the years leading up to the American Civil War, he
was a dominant figure in the Republican Party in
its formative years. Although regarded as the
leading contender for the party's presidential
nomination in 1860, he was defeated by Abraham
Lincoln. Regarded as the leading candidate for the
Republican nomination in the 1860 presidential
election. Several factors, including attitudes to his
vocal opposition to slavery, combined to defeat
him. Although devastated by his loss, he
campaigned for Lincoln, who appointed him
Secretary of State. His firm stance against foreign
intervention in the Civil War helped deter Britain
and France from interfering in the conflict. He was
a target of the 1865 assassination plot that killed
Lincoln, and was seriously wounded by
conspirator Lewis Powell. Seward remained loyally
at his post through the presidency of Andrew
Johnson. His contemporary Carl Schurz described
Seward as "one of those spirits who sometimes
will go ahead of public opinion instead of tamely
following its footprints.
In the early years following the Civil War, most Americans paid little attention to events in Europe,
Asia or Africa. Instead they focused their energies on rebuilding the war-torn South, settling the
West and developing industry. The New York Sun even suggested that the Department of State,
which was in charge of foreign relations, had outgrown its usefulness and should be abolished.
One American who did not share
such views was William Seward,
Secretary of State under Pres.
Lincoln and Johnson. Seward
wanted to see the United States
expand into a vast empire.
Seward wanted to raise tariffs
and increase foreign trade to
strengthen the economy. He also
favored building a canal across
Central America and laying a
telegraph cable under the
Atlantic Ocean. Above all Seward
wanted to prevent other nations
from gaining power in North
America. His first opportunity
came in 1867.
Alaska
In 1867, the Russian
Emissary to the Czar
hinted that they would be
willing to sell Alaska to
America. Seward eagerly
made an offer. He
persuaded Congress to pay
7.2 million to Russia, which
figures out to be about
two cents an acre. Called
"Seward’s Folly" by
members of the press at
first, the purchase prepaid
it's priced many times
over.
An Alaskan gold rush in
1898 yielded millions of
dollars worth of gold. In the
next, century Alaska would
prove to have vast reserves
of oil.
Also in 1867, Seward convinced United States government to annex the Midway Islands which are
about 1000 miles northwest of Hawaii in the Pacific Ocean. Yet Seward met with some
disappointments. The Senate turned down his plans to buy Denmark's Virgin Islands in the
Caribbean, to take over the Caribbean nation of Santo Domingo and to annex Canada.
An Imperial Era
For centuries Europeans
had set up colonies in
distant places. But the drive
for colonies lagged until the
industrial age. The
Industrial Revolution
sparked a new era of
expansion in the 1870s.
Great Britain, France, Russia
and latecomers like
Germany and Italy eagerly
sought new lands to exploit.
They ushered in the era of
modern imperialism, the
effort by a powerful nation
to create an empire by
controlling other nations.
Each nation's colonies
and possessions served
two economic purposes.
They were a rich new
source of raw materials.
At the same time they
provided markets for
manufactured goods
that could not be sold at
home. Economic gain
was not the only motive
for imperialism. Many
Europeans also felt they
had a moral duty to
bring civilization to those
who many considered
"backward" peoples.
British writer Rudyard
Kipling called this "the
white man's burden."
The fact that these
people already have
their own civilizations
was ignored.
New technology made it easier for advanced nations to win colonies. Steamships,
improved weapons and transoceanic communications helped to quickly crush resistance
in weaker nations.
While many European nations
chose to expand overseas for
purely economic or military
reasons, the United States had a
third cultural reason for
expanding overseas. Powerful
nations that expanded overseas
for economic reasons were
seeking raw materials to help
drive the industrialization of their
nation. Those that expanded
overseas for military reasons
were attempting through the use
of force to expand the power
and prestige of their nation. The
United States however, also
expanded for cultural reasons.
The United States held the belief
that their form of government
and religion was far superior to
any other nations government or
religion and they should spread
both democracy and Christianity
to all nations of the world.
To achieve American
imperialism United States
followed a plan set forth in a
book by Captain Alfred Thayer
Mahan. The book, The
Influence of Sea Power Upon
History, outlined a plan for
United States to expand in a
way that was fitting with
American ideals. Mahan
believed that the US could
achieve imperialism without
the use of military force.
Instead, he proposed America
should expand through trade
and not colonies.
To protect these trade
routes Mahan suggest
that the US should create
a fleet of steam powered
battleships to protect
their trade routes. He also
proposed the annexation
of Hawaii and the building
of the canal across Central
America. Hawaii would
provide the U.S. an
important naval base in
the Pacific Ocean and the
canal would allow
American ships to pass
quickly between the
Atlantic and Pacific
Oceans.
In 1889, Nellie Bly complete
an assignment to travel
around the world in less than
80 days. "No matter where I
went," she reported, "I saw
English soldiers stationed."
Americans, though, were
almost nowhere to be seen.
In Italy, a restaurant owner
was surprised that Bly was an
American: He thought all
Americans were Indians!
Bly's stories taught her
readers something about
their nation's place in the
world. After the Civil War,
American had concentrated
on domestic matters. Now
they were more curious
about the world outside their
borders and ready to play a
larger role on the world
stage.
Europeans and Americans first learned of Hawaii in 1778. Hawaii attracted traders from many
nations. Americans valued the islands as a stopover for their growing trade with China. American
missionaries also settled in Hawaii in an effort to convert the natives to Christianity. Many of their
descendants became sugar planters who dominated the economy for many years. Sugar
plantations were dependent on a steady supply of cheap labor. To fill this need, planters brought
in thousands of workers from China, Japan, The Philippines, Korea, Portugal and Puerto Rico. By
the late 1890s one fourth of the people in Hawaii were immigrants from Japan alone.
In 1891, Queen Liliuokalani came
to power in Hawaii. American
planters were in support of the
American educated princess
assuming power in Hawaii, but
Queen Liliuokalani saw the
American planters as a threat to
Hawaiian sovereignty. Instead of
a scared little girl, she came to
the throne a strong nationalist
who tried to restore the power
of the monarchy and limit the
privileges of foreign merchants.
The American planters, faced
with ruin, sought to overthrow
the monarchy. Led by Sanford
Dole, the takeover began in
January 1894 and was openly
supported by John L. Stevens,
U.S. minister to Hawaii.
Stevens called for troops to
take control of government
buildings including the
executive building at the
palace. The coup was
successful in deposing the
Queen and Stevens cabled
Washington, D.C., proclaiming
“The Hawaiian pear is now
fully ripe, and this is the
golden hour for the United
States to pluck it.” However,
the American government was
not ready to pluck the pear
just yet.
The plantation owners
then sent a delegation to
Washington D.C. to
negotiate a treaty of
annexation. President
Benjamin Harrison
supported the treaty.
However, due to reckless
spending during his
Presidency, Harrison had
lost the election of 1892
to former President
Grover Cleveland. Before
the treaty of annexation
could be signed, Grover
Cleveland succeeded
Harrison in March 1893.
Cleveland, who was a
member of the AntiImperialist League,
believed that the American
planters and American
Marines had abused their
power. The outraged
President withdrew the
annexation treaty from the
Senate. Expansionists
aware that Japan also
coveted Hawaii continued
to press for annexation.
The debate raged until
1898 when Congress finally
annexed Hawaii during the
Spanish-American War.
The Monroe Doctrine
issued by Pres. James
Monroe in 1823, stated
that the United States
would oppose European
involvement in Latin
America or the Caribbean.
But for many years it was
the British Navy not the
United States that
enforced the Monroe
Doctrine. Most Americans
forgot about it. However,
events in South America
brought the United States
and Britain close to war
and saw the Monroe
Doctrine used to its full
force in many years.
In 1895, gold had been discovered in the border area between Venezuela and the colony of British
Guiana, Understandably, Britain and Venezuela both claimed the territory. At Venezuela's request, the
United States demanded in forceful language that Britain submit the dispute to arbitration. When
Britain failed to respond quickly Pres. Cleveland used the Monroe Doctrine to threaten military action if
the British continued to claim the disputed territory. The British concerned with German threats to
their colonies, finally agreed to accept arbitration in 1897. The crisis ended peacefully but the events in
Venezuela showed that Americans were beginning to see the Monroe Doctrine as a vital force in United
States policy towards Latin America.