TIME 2 (1607-1754)
NOTES: Chapter 4- American Society Transformed (1720-1770)
Europeans and American Indians maneuvered and fought for dominance, control, and security in North America, and distinctive
colonial and native societies emerged.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
ID-1: Analyze how competing conceptions of national identity were expressed in the development of political institutions and cultural values from
the late colonial through the antebellum periods.
ID-4: Explain how conceptions of group identity and autonomy emerged out of cultural interactions between colonizing groups, Africans, and
American Indians in the colonial era
ID-5: Analyze the role of economic, political, social, and ethnic factors on the formation of regional identities in what would become the US from the
colonial period through the 19th century.
WXT-1: Explain how patterns of exchanging commodities, peoples, diseases, and ideas around the Atlantic World developed after European contact
and shaped North American colonial-era societies.
WXT-2: Analyze how innovations in markets, transportation, and technology affected the economy and the different regions of North America from
the colonial period through the end of the Civil War.
WXT-4: Explain the development of labor systems such as slavery, indentured servitude, and free labor from the colonial period- end of the 18th
century.
PEO-1: Explain how/why people moved within the Americas (before contact) and to/within the Americas (after contact and colonization).
PEO-4: Analyze the effects that migration, disease, and warfare had on the American Indian population after contact with Europeans.
PEO-5: Explain how free and forced migration to and within different parts of North America caused regional development, cultural diversity and
blending, and political and social conflicts through the 19th century.
POL-1: Analyze the factors behind competition, cooperation, and conflict among different societies/social groups in North America in the colonial
period.
WOR-1: Explain how imperial competition and the exchange of commodities across both sides of the Atlantic Ocean influenced the origins and
patterns of development of North American societies in the colonial period.
WOR-2: Explain how the exchange of ideas among different parts of the Atlantic World shaped belief systems and independence movements into
the early 19th century.
ENV-1: Explain how the introduction of new plants, animals, and technologies altered the natural environment of North American and affected
interactions among various groups in the colonial period.
ENV-2: Explain how the natural environment contributed to the development of distinct regional group identities, and conflicts in the pre-contact
period through the independence period.
ENV-4: Analyze how the search for economic resources affected social/political developments from colonial period-Reconstruction.
CUL-1: Compare the cultural values and attitudes of different European, African American, and native peoples in the colonial period and explain how
contact affected intergroup relationships and conflicts
CUL-4: Analyze how changing religious ideals, Enlightenment beliefs, and republican thought shaped the politics, culture, and society of the colonial
era through the early Republic
KEY CONCEPT 2.1: Differences in imperial goals, cultures, and the North American environments that different empires confronted led Europeans
to develop diverse patterns of colonization.
I.
II.
17th century Spanish, French, Dutch, and British colonizers embraced different social and economic goals, cultural assumptions, and
folkways, resulting in varied models of colonization. (WXT-2) (PEO-1) (WOR-1) (ENV-4)
a. Unlike their European competitors, the English eventually sought to establish colonies based on agriculture, sending relatively large
numbers of men and women to acquire land and populate their settlements, while having relatively hostile relationships with
American Indians.
The British-American system of slavery developed out of the economic, demographic, and geographic characteristics of the Britishcontrolled regions of the New World. (WOR-1) (WXT-4) (ID-4) (POL-1) (CUL-1)
a. Unlike Spanish, French, and Dutch colonies, which accepted intermarriage and cross-racial sexual unions with native peoples (and, in
Spain’s case, with enslaved Africans), English colonies attracted both males and females who rarely intermarried with either native
peoples or Africans, leading to the development of a rigid racial hierarchy.
b. Reinforced by a strong belief in British and racial and cultural superiority, the British system enslaved black people in perpetuity,
altered African gender and kinship relationships in the colonies, and was one factor that led the British colonists into violent
confrontations with native peoples.
c. Africans developed both overt and covert means to resist the dehumanizing aspects of slavery. (i.e. rebellion, sabotage, or escape)
KEY CONCEPT 2.2: European colonization efforts in North America stimulated intercultural contact and intensified conflict between the various
groups of colonizers and native peoples.
I.
II.
Competition over resources between European rivals led to conflict within and between North American colonial possessions and American
Indians. (WXT-1) (PEO-1) (WOR-1) (POL-1) (ENV-1)
a. As European nations competed in North America, their colonies focused on gaining new sources of labor and on producing and
acquiring commodities that were valued in Europe. (i.e. furs, tobacco)
b. The goals and interests of European leaders at times diverged from those of colonial citizens, leading to growing mistrust on both
sides of the Atlantic, as settlers, especially in the English colonies, expressed dissatisfaction over territorial settlements, frontier
defense, and other issues. (i.e. Wool Act, Molasses Act, widespread smuggling in Spanish and English colonies)
Clashes between European and American Indian social and economic values caused changes in both cultures. (ID-4) (WXT-1) (PEO-4) (PEO5) (POL-1) (CUL-1)
a. By supplying American Indian allies with deadlier weapons and alcohol and by rewarding Indian military actions, Europeans helped
increase the intensity and destructiveness of American Indian warfare.
KEY CONCEPT 2.3: The increasing political, economic, and cultural exchanges within the “Atlantic World” had a profound impact on the
development of colonial societies in North America.
I.
II.
“Atlantic World” commercial, religious, philosophical, and political interactions among Europeans, Africans, and American native peoples
stimulated economic growth, expanded social networks, and reshaped labor systems. (WXT-1) (WXT-4) (WOR-1) (WOR-2) (CUL-4)
a. The growth of an Atlantic economy throughout the 18th century created a shared labor market and a wide exchange of New World
and European goods, as seen in the African slave trade and the shipment of products from the Americans.
b. Several factors promoted Anglicization in the British colonies: the growth of autonomous political communities based on English
models, the development of commercial ties and legal structures, the emergence of a trans-Atlantic print culture, Protestant
evangelism, religious toleration, and the spread of European Enlightenment ideas. (Maryland Toleration Act of 1649 or the founding
of Penn, or John Locke)
c. The presence of slavery and the impact of colonial wars stimulated the growth of ideas on race in this Atlantic system, leading to the
emergence of racial stereotyping and the development of strict racial categories among British colonists, which contrasted with
Spanish and French acceptance of racial gradations. (i.e. Casta system, mulattos, Metis)
Britain’s desire to maintain a viable North American empire in the face of growing internal challenges and external competition inspired
efforts to strengthen its imperial control, stimulating increasing resistance from colonists who had grown accustomed to a large measure
of autonomy. (WOR-1) (WOR-2) (ID-1) (CUL-4)
a. As regional distinctiveness among the British colonies diminished over time, they developed largely similar patterns of culture, laws,
institutions, and governance within the context of the British imperial system.
b. Late 17th-century efforts to integrate Britain’s colonies into a coherent, hierarchical imperial structure and pursue mercantilist
economic aims met with scant success due to varied forms of colonial resistance and conflicts with American Indian groups, and were
followed by nearly a half-century of the British government’s relative indifference to colonial governance. (dominion of New England,
Navigation Acts)
c. Resistance to imperial control in the British colonies drew on colonial experiences of self-government, evolving local ideas of liberty,
the political thought of the Enlightenment, greater religious independence and diversity, and an ideology critical of perceived
corruption in the imperial system. (i.e. Great Awakening; republicanism)
SUMMARY:
In Chapters 2 and 3, we looked at American society in its infancy. Though this society was shaped by many forces, its basic
belief and value systems came from England. At the end of chapter 3, we saw that colonial society was showing signs of evolving in its
own unique direction, a fact that caused England to formulate some rules and regulations (the Navigation Acts, for example) designed
to control colonial behavior.
In chapter 4, the authors analyze the internal makeup of colonial society to show more clearly how certain forces interacted
to create the unique American society. In the first section of the chapter, “Population Growth and Ethnic Diversity,” we note the
reasons behind the dramatic population growth in the colonies in the 19 th century. By examining the migration of a variety of ethnic
groups that made up that migration, we see the development of the cultural pluralism that distinguishes American society. At the
same time we recognize some of the internal dynamics produced by that pluralism (the question of assimilation, as well as the
emergence and consequences of ethnic antagonism).
The economic evolution of the colonies is the main theme of the second section. Although there was slow economic growth
between 1720 and 1750, growth was uneven. We examine in detail the economic forces operating in: (1) New England, (2) the middle
colonies; (3) the Chesapeake area, and (4) the Lower South. The forces affecting the economy as a whole interacted with regional
characteristics to create a separate set of economic dynamics within each region. Consequently, the colonies were not a unified whole
and had no history or unity or sense of common purpose.
An examination of the characteristics of genteel and ordinary culture leads to a discussion of the religious, political, economic,
and intercultural rituals in which 18th century colonial residents participated and through which they forged their cultural identities.
Due to differences in the historical experiences of Native Americans, people of mixed race, European-Americans, and African
Americans, different family forms emerged within each group. Ethnicity, gender, and place of residence (rural vs. urban) also affected
patterns of daily life in 18th century colonial America.
In the penultimate section, “Politics: Stability and Crisis in British America,” we turn to political developments- chiefly the
emergence of colonial assemblies as a powerful political force. We also look at the contrasts between the ideal and the reality of
representative government in 18th century colonial America.
Then we return to the theme that underlies all the sections in this chapter: the seeds of tension, conflict, and crisis present
within 18th century American society. If you look back at the earlier sections, you can see the potential for conflict in: (1) ethnic
diversity; (2) the increase of urban poverty despite general economic growth, as well as the economic variations among the four
regions; (3) the differences between city and rural life, between the status of men and women, and between white and African
American families; (4) the clashing of the older and the newer cultures and of the genteel and the ordinary; and (5) the conflict between
the ideal and the reality of the role of colonial assemblies. The crises and conflicts resulting from this diversity are exemplified in the
Stono Rebellion, the New York conspiracy, the land riots, and the Regulator movements. Finally, we consider the crisis that was the
most widespread because it was not confined to a particular region- the First Great Awakening. This was a religious crisis, but its causes
resembled those of the other crises of the period.
I.
Introduction
After 1720, the American colonies expanded to most of the territory between the Atlantic coast and the Appalachian
Mountains. Also, the population came to include a larger number of non-English people and a variety of ethnic groups
and religious sects.
II.
Population Growth and Ethnic Diversity
a. Population Growth
The population of the British colonies in North America increased from about 250,000 in 1700 to about 2.5 million
in 1775. Although migration was responsible for a large share of the growth, most of the gain resulted from natural
increase.
b. Involuntary Migrants from Africa
About 260,000 Africans taken from many different ethnic groups and regions in Africa, had been imported into
England’s mainland colonies by 1775.
Because of natural increase, American-born people of African descent eventually dominated the enslaved
population numerically.
c. Newcomers from Europe
Some 500,000 Europeans moved to North America during the 18th century, with most arriving after 1730.
d. Scots-Irish, Scots, and Germans
One of the largest groups of immigrants, about 150,000, came from Ireland and Scotland. They were joined by about
85,000 Germans.
e. Maintaining Ethnic Identities
By 1775, half the population south of New England was non-English. Assimilation of these migrants into AngloAmerican culture depended on patterns of settlement, size of the group, and the strength of their ties to their
cultural roots.
To retain power, English elites sometimes fostered antagonism among ethnic groups. However, in the 1770s the
elites realized they needed the support of non-English Americans in their rebellion against Great Britain.
III.
Economic Growth and Development
a. Population and Economic Growth
Large populations made British colonies economically stable, while the widely scattered people of the French and
Spanish colonies left them weak and vulnerable and often dependent on foreign colonies for goods.
Population growth in the British colonies in North America generated an ever-increasing demand for goods and
services. Small-scale colonial manufacturing developed as did a network of internal trade.
b. Wealth and Poverty
Generally, the American economy improved, which lead to a better standard of living for many people. Economic
stratification, on the other hand, also shaped social and economic structures.
New immigrants usually faced fewer opportunities for advancement than had the earliest arrivals. Although rural
poverty remained limited, a poor class did begin to emerge in urban areas.
c. New England and King George’s War
The war increased the wealth of some New Englanders, but many Bostonians suffered economically from the war.
d. Middle Colonies and the Chesapeake
King George’s War spurred an economic boom in the Middle Colonies.
During the 1740s, grain crops made important inroads into the tobacco culture of the Chesapeake, causing a change
in settlement patterns.
e. Carolina and Georgia
South Carolina experiences several economic fluctuations, but the Lower South experienced more economic growth
than did other colonial regions and had the highest average wealth per freeholder in the British mainland colonies
by the time of the American Revolution.
Founded in 1732, Georgia served as a haven for debtors and as a garrison colony to protect England’s southernmost
claims on the North American mainland.
IV.
Colonial Cultures
a. Genteel Culture
Well-to-do Americans formed the core of a genteel elite that constructed a culture different from that of the 17th
century and from that of ordinary colonists in the eighteenth century
Men from wealthy families prided themselves on their level of education & their intellectual connections to Europe
b. The Enlightenment
In the 18th century, Europeans’ fascination with natural law led to an emphasis on acquiring knowledge through
reason. This movement (the Enlightenment) affected American culture and politics, particularly among the elite.
John Locke & other Enlightenment philosophers advanced the theory that governments were created by men &
existed for the good of the people. A ruler who did not fulfill his contract with the people could be ousted from
power.
c. Oral Cultures
The majority of British Americans could not read, and conversation provided the primary means of communication.
Consequently, the exchange of information remained slow and restricted.
The culture of ordinary colonists tended to be oral, communal, and localized.
d. Religious and Civic Rituals
Many cultural identities grew out of public rituals, including attendance at church. These gatherings reinforced local
attitudes, mores, and hierarchies.
Important public rituals included church festivals, militia musters, and, esp. in the Chesapeake, court days and
political events.
e. Rituals of Consumption
The growth of prosperity led to shopping and conspicuous consumption.
f. Importance of Tea and Madeira
Tea drinking was an important consumption ritual.
Madeira became the favorite drink of the elite, and elaborate ceremony accompanied its consumption.
g. Rituals on the “Middle Ground”
Relations with Native Americans led to innovative rituals, including those relating to trade, crimes, and punishment.
V. Colonial Families
a. Native American and Mixed-Race Families
Pressure from European settlers forced most Native Americans to change their traditional marriage views and roles.
Sexual liaisons between European men and Native American women produced a mixed-race population. The offspring
of mixed unions were generally accepted in New France and the Anglo-American backcountry, but they were considered
inferior and degraded individuals in the Spanish Borderlands.
b. European-American Families
In these more stable households, men held dominion over family external affairs but women ruled the home
c. African-American Families
The shape of African-Americans’ family lives were determined by the setting in which African Americans lived.
d. Forms of Resistance
Since slavery existed in all of the English colonies, slaves had few options if they considered running away. The extended
family helped African Americans deal with the uncertainties associated with the institution of slavery, and slave families
struggled to gain some sort of autonomy.
e. City Life
Urban dwellers had much more contact with the outside world than their rural counterparts, but sometimes the benefits
of city life were overshadowed by epidemics.
VI.
Politics: Stability and Crisis in British America
a. Colonial Assemblies
American political leaders sought to increase the powers of elected assemblies relative to the powers of the
governors and other appointed officials.
By the middle of the century, Americans expressed a belief in balanced government, and they viewed assemblies as
the people’s protectors.
Assemblymen saw themselves as acting defensively to protect colonists’ liberties, but they rarely responded to the
concerns of the poor.
b. Slave Rebellions in South Carolina and New York
The first in a series of colonial crises occurred with the Stono Rebellion in South Carolina in 1739, an uprising that
led to stiffer laws regarding slaves throughout British America.
News of the Stono Rebellion was one factor that led to fears in N.Y. of a conspiracy to foment a slave insurrection
c. Rioters and Regulators
Growing competition for good farmland resulted in a number of violent disputes in N.J. & along the Hudson River.
In the Carolinas, frontier people’s unhappiness with the colonial governments led to violence in the 1760s/1770s.
VII.
A Crisis in Religion
a. The First Great Awakening
The most widespread crisis took a religious form, called the Great Awakening, began in Massachusetts and spread
throughout the colonies by the 1760s, and was furthered in New England by the preaching of Jonathan Edwards.
Edwards preached that all could be saved it they recognized their own depraved nature and completely surrendered
to the will of God.
b. George Whitefield
Whitefield, A Methodist minister from England, played a key role in spreading the excitement of the Great
Awakening.
c. Impact of the Awakening
Many congregations splintered as a result of the Awakening, but the revival also led to more toleration of religious
diversity.
By challenging traditional modes of thought, the Awakening introduced a strain of egalitarianism to the colonies.
d. Virginia Baptists
These religious dissenters challenged the status quo in Virginia by condemning the lifestyle of the gentry and by
preaching equality of races in the eyes of the church.