EOC Review Items Reaganomics Once elected president in 1980, long-time conservative Ronald Reagan planned to reduce taxes and cut government spending in an effort to stimulate the economy and put Americans back to work. While Reagan’s policies will ultimately cut the marginal tax rate by 30% and lower the unemployment rate, he failed to move Congress to cut government spending, which coupled with increases in defense spending, created expanding budget deficits and historic increases in the national debt. While these economic policies might be costly for Americans in the long term; after 1983, the nation experienced economic growth spurred on by lower taxes, defense spending, and deregulation. Opponents of Reaganomics have often referred to it as “Trickle-Down Economics” due to their opinion that it unfairly helped the wealthiest Americans. Peace Through Strength While Reagan sharply increased spending on defense as a means of stimulating the economy, this military buildup also became an important part of Reagan’s foreign policy. This policy, known as “Peace through Strength”, was based on the philosophy that the best way to prevent war was to make potential enemies think that the US had both the means and the will to stop aggression. From this policy came two notable examples: the Strategic Defense Initiative or “Star Wars” program to deploy a space-based anti-ballistic missile weapon system in orbit; and the Reagan Doctrine (1985), which added an aggressive corollary to the US policy of containing the spread of communism by calling for the US to “roll back” communism by aiding those who were resisting communism around the world. Countries where such “freedom fighters” were active were Afghanistan, Angola, Nicaragua, and Cambodia. Iran-Contra Affair As part of the Reagan’s effort to “roll-back” communism, the Reagan Doctrine (using the CIA to train/equip forces fighting communism) was used to support the Contras Rebels in Nicaragua. Reagan was especially sympathetic to the Contras calling them “the moral equivalent to the Founding Fathers.” To insure Congressional oversight in the administration of the Reagan Doctrine, the Democratically controlled Congress passed the Boland Amendment, which restricted the aid the CIA and Dept of Defense could give the Contras. Reagan ordered his National Security Advisor to secretly continue aid to the Contras. To fund this aid, a secret arms deal with Iran (at war with Iraq and listed as a state sponsor of international terrorism) was negotiated. In addition to the monies generated by the arms sales, Reagan hoped to improve US relations with Iran and secure the release of American hostages in Lebanon. In the end: the weapons went to Iran, some of the hostages were released, and $18 million dollars were directed to the Contras. Once public, an 8-year investigation of the so-called “Arms-for-Hostages” deal ensued in which some officials resigned, few were convicted, and a handful of high-profile Reagan officials were ultimately pardoned. While Reagan’s image was briefly tarnished, most historians agree that no major damage was done to his legacy. Marines in Lebanon Reagan deployed 800 US Marines to Lebanon as part of a multinational force (along with Syria and Israel) attempting to resolve a long, bloody civil war that threatened to destabilize the region. On April 18, 1983, a car bomb detonated outside the US Embassy killing 17 Americans. Six months later, on October 23, 1983, a suicide bomber drove a truck full of explosives into the Marine Barracks killing 241 servicemen. Reagan soon announced a withdraw of US forces from Lebanon. Iran Hostage Crisis In the years after WWII, the US began to replace Britain as the dominant international force in the free-world. Until 1953, the British had largely controlled Iran. However, in reaction to the 1953 election of Mohammed Mossadegh, a Socialist-minded Nationalist, the Eisenhower Administration authorized the CIA to organize a coup d’état that would bring the young Persian king, Reza Shah Pahlavi to power. With US military support, the Shah will make Iran an invaluable source of oil and ally against communism during the Cold War. From 1953 until 1979, the Shah will rule Iran as an authoritarian ruler who routinely used his secret police to squash dissent. US support of the Shah was intensely resented by average Iranians. In 1979, a popular uprising forced the Shah to flee the country, which brought opposition leader, Shiite cleric Ruhollah Khomeini, to power. When the Carter allowed the cancer stricken Shah to come to the US for treatment on humanitarian grounds, a mob of Iranian students overran the US embassy in Tehran taking 60+ Americans hostage. Khomeini demanded the return of the Shah for trial along with the billions of dollars in oil revenues that had been stolen from the people of Iran. In retaliation, Carter announced an oil embargo against Iran and ordered that all Iranian assets in the US be seized. As the hostage crisis dragged on for months, the American people began to demand stronger action. In April of 1980, Carter authorized the elite Delta Force to conduct a high-risk operation to rescue the hostages. Due to equipment failure and an aircraft collision in the Iranian desert, the mission was aborted. This failure appeared to highlight Carter’s impotence in dealing with the situation. By the 1980 presidential election, Khomeini realized that little was left to be gained by keeping the Americans hostage – especially given that economic sanctions were taking their toll on the Iranian economy. While Carter worked hard to ensure that the hostages were released on his watch, they were not released until minutes after the inauguration of Ronald Reagan. What were the causes and key organizations and individuals of the conservative resurgence of the 1980s and 1990s? The liberal New Deal coalition created by FDR dominated domestic politics from 1933 until the early 1970s with a commitment to economic assistance for white, middle-class families. This assistance will take many forms: creation of a social safety net, support for labor unions, subsidized suburban growth, and government programs to fight poverty. When this Liberal coalition began to politicize the social movements of the 1960s – Civil Rights, integration/bussing, gender rights, and sexual rights – a growing number of white Americans began to abandon the Democratic Party. Conservatives positioned themselves to defend the traditional nuclear family from what they believed to be moral threats. Politically, Conservatives sought to constrain government interference in the family (social policy) and limit government interference in private enterprise (economic policy). Phyllis Schlafly In response to the feminist movement and the constitutional process to pass the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA), Phyllis Schlafly organized a grassroots counter-movement called StopERA. Schlafly contended that the family is the basis of the Judeo-Christian society and that women played the all important role of raising/nurturing children. According to Schlafly, women had been liberated by labor saving devices invented by free market capitalism. Schlafly argued that the ERA would deny women special labor protections, expose women to the draft, and increase the federal government’s intrusion into their lives/families/homes. The StopERA movement was ultimately successful because the ERA was not ratified within the constitutional time limit of 7 years. The StopERA grass-roots movement would be a model for future conservative campaigns against social political reform. Schlafly is widely considered to be one of the most influential women during this time period. Heritage Foundation Founded in 1973 by leading conservatives that were frustrated with Nixon’s “liberal consensus”, the Heritage Foundation was a think-tank created to be more openly political and daring in its advance of individual liberty, free enterprise, limited government, a strong national defense, and traditional American values. The foundation took a leading role in the conservative movement during the presidency of Ronald Reagan. Heritage has since continued to have a significant influence in US public policy and is widely considered to be one of the most influential conservative research organizations in the US Moral Majority While the perceived moral breakdown of US society troubled many American evangelical Christians, the issue that galvanized them as a political movement was the 1973 Supreme Court decision Roe v. Wade, which legalized abortion. The Moral Majority, led by the Reverend Jerry Falwell, was created in 1979, declaring that American Christians had a duty – a moral obligation – to get involved in politics. Seeing themselves as defenders against social breakdown, chaos, and evil, the Moral Majority used campaign tactics to inform fellow Christians and get the vote out during the 1980 presidential election in which they voted overwhelmingly for Ronald Reagan. While the Moral Majority dissolved in the late 1980s, it set a precedent of Evangelical Christian political action that is still influential today. The National Rifle Association (NRA) The NRA was founded in 1871 as an organization for marksmanship enthusiasts. During most of the 20th century, the NRA focused on hunting, conservation, and marksmanship. For many the rampant crime of the 1970s required a stout defense of citizens’ Second Amendment right to own and bear arms. In this climate, the NRA launched its first political action in 1976, by using direct mail to support pro-gun candidates. This shift to aggressive protection of the Second Amendment was characterized by political mobilization in which coalitions with like-minded conservative politicians, mostly Republicans, were formed. Today, the NRA is widely considered to be one of the most influential lobby organizations in the country. The Contract with America: In 1994, then Speaker of the House Newt Gingrich, proposed a program of conservative principles known as the Contract with America. In it Gingrich argued the federal government was too large and was no longer responsive to the will of the American voter. Federal programs (welfare) had taken away personal responsibility from families and individuals. The contract sought to restore balance between government and its citizens. It was essentially a promise by Republican candidates to the American people, stating what they would do if elected. The Rust Belt to the Sun Belt The traditional heart of American industry - the Northeast & Midwest – the Rust Belt witnessed steady economic decline during this period as industrial/manufacturing jobs were moved to Mexico and overseas. In search of economic opportunity, Americans began moving in large numbers to the Sun Belt – the South and Southwest. Why? Technologies overcame undesirable living conditions, which encouraged this migration included: dams/availability of water in the Southwest, milder winters during a time of rising oil prices, and air-conditioning. Many of the new industries (technology, information systems, etc) were located in the Sun Belt. Spending on the military increased and many bases and military contractors were located in the Sun Belt. Many businesses were lured to the more conservative South where Right to Work laws severely limited the power of labor unions and generally created a pro-business climate. Billy Graham Beginning in 1947, Billy Graham began his evangelical Billy Graham Crusades of large Christian revival meetings. Throughout the 1950s, Graham’s popularity increased – especially due to his good will for humanity. Graham preached against communism, apartheid, and frequently against segregation. His organization, the Billy Graham Evangelistic Association, was funded by well-known conservative activists who worked with Graham to craft a theologically and politically conservative message. Graham’s magazine, Christianity Today, was widely respected and had one of the largest circulations of any conservative publications. Graham is probably best remembered as a spiritual advisor to all American presidents since Truman. He was especially close to Eisenhower and Nixon. Sandra Day O’Connor Appointed by Ronald Reagan to the Supreme Court in 1981, O’Connor became the first woman to serve on the nation’s highest court. Consistently voting with the court’s conservative majority, Justice O’Connor pursued a narrow interpretation of the law and generally followed the New Federalism approach favoring a transfer of power from the US Government back to the states. She retired in 2006 after 25 years on the Supreme Court. The Environmental Movement: Rachel Carson- Silent Spring – detailed the dangers of chemical pesticides on the environment; 1962 marks beginning of modern environmental moevemnt. Love Canal Incident• Earth Day- April 1970 unofficial beginning of environmental movement. • Environmental Protection Agency- created by Nixon, federal government agency that sets and enforces pollution standards. • Clean Air Act 1970- set emission standards for factories and autos. • Clean Water Act 1972- restricted discharge of pollutants into lakes and rivers. • Three Mile Island Incident- no new nuclear power facilities built since 1973 due to fear and questions. The Technological Revolution 1970’s, 1980’s 1990’s • Integrated circuit- complete electronic circuit on a silicon chip. • Microprocessors- new chips reduced the size, speed, and function of computers; chip holds memory and computing functions. • 1976- Apple Computer founded; Steven Jobs & Stephen Wozniak. • 1977 Apple II introduced • 1981- Macintosh introduced; on screen graphics, mouse, icons. • Bill Gates founded Microsoft; 1985 introduced Windows. • Internet and World Wide Web developed= growth of “dot com” businesses. • 1953 – structure of DNA deciphered= law enforcement uses and genetic engineering develop in 1980’s 1990’s. George Bush Sr. (1988-1992) Election: Bush was elected on a promise not to raise taxes (“read my lips, no new taxes”) - he will break that promise while in office. The Cold War Ends: Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev initiates reforms: “perestroika”- to restructure the Soviet economy (allows some private ownership of business), and “glasnost”- (openness) allows more free speech, religion. * Nov. 1989- East German Guards open Berlin Wall gate; days later the Berlin Wall is torn down. * May 1989- Tiananmen Square Incident- Chinese students held demonstrations for democracy in Beijing; many people were killed & arrested as the Chinese army was called in to crush the protests. 1990- Persian Gulf War- Saddam Hussein invaded Kuwait; UN forces led by the US liberated Kuwait “Operation Desert Storm” 1991- Soviet leader Gorbachev announced the end of the Soviet Union. 1992-Present – President: William J. Clinton (1993-2001), George W. Bush (2001- 2008) • 1992 election : William “Bill” Clinton (Democrat) v. Republican George Bush Sr. v. H. Ross Perot (Reform Party) • Bill Clinton first baby boomer elected president. • 1993 Clinton proposed a budget to Congress that raised taxes-Republicans in Congress refused to sign-compromise was reached= reduced budget deficits. • 1997- 1st time in 27 years Clinton submitted a balanced budget to Congress. • Family Medical Leave Act – gave workers 12 weeks per year of unpaid family leave for birth of child, adoption, illness of a family member. • Americorps- • 1993- European Union created; free trade zone that shares a common bank and currency (euro). • Brady Bill passed- imposed a waiting period before people could buy handguns, background check required for gun dealers to sale guns to individuals. • 1994 Republican “Contract with America”- Newt Gingrich (Rep./ Ga.) program proposed 10 changes: lower taxes, welfare reform, anticrime laws, balanced budget etc. • North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) - US, Canada, and Mexico formed a “free trade zone” (reduced or eliminated tariffs between these countries) Critics worried that US industrial jobs would move to Mexico. • Welfare Reform Act- limited people to no more than two consecutive years on welfare & required them to work to get welfare benefits. 1996 Election: Bill Clinton v. Bob Dole – Clinton wins second term. • Clinton Scandals: Whitewater Development & Monica Lewinski affair. • Clinton impeached but not removed from office. • Bosnian Crisis (Balkans Crisis)- 1991 a civil war broke out in former Yugoslav republic of Bosnia; Orthodox Christian Serbs v. Catholic Croatians v. Bosnian Muslims. ** Serbs began “ethnic cleansing” of Muslims; NATO led by US bombed the Serbs. ** 1996 Dayton Accords- peace plan to end Bosnian civil war. • 1998 Kosovo (Serbian province): Albanians wanted Kosovo separate from Bosnia & Serbian leader Slobodan Milosevic orders a crackdown on Albanians= civil war= NATO led by US bombed Serbia= Serbia pulls its troops out of Kosovo. • Immigration Trends 1990’s—mostly Asian and Hispanic immigration. 2000 Presidential Election • Al Gore (Democrat) v. George W. Bush (Republican) v. Ralph Nader (Green Party) • Controversial vote of 2000- Gore won 48.4% of popular vote/Bush won 47.9%. ; Neither candidate had 270 electoral votes to win presidency. • Both men needed the 25 electoral votes of Florida= Florida vote was so close Florida law required a recount of ballots. • Gore asked for a hand recount in strong Democratic counties only; machine count showed Bush in lead. • “Hanging chads”-Florida ballots that had not been fully punched. • Bush v. Gore – Supreme Court ruled hand counts to cease= Bush declared winner. George W. Bush 2000-2008 • Priority was to cut taxes to jump start the economy (Congress passed $1.35 trillion tax cut phased in over 10 years). • No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) - proposed standardized testing in reading and math grades 3-8 in all states; all groups of students must show improvement. ** Critics argue that it emphasizes testing too much and penalizes schools who otherwise meet most goals. • Bush is in favor of developing Strategic Defense (missiles systems that can shoot down enemy nuclear missiles directed toward the US). • September 11, 2001- terrorists crashed passenger planes into the World Trade Center and Pentagon; Osama Bin Laden (al-Qaeda). • The War on Terrorism: Congress voted to give use of force to fight terrorists & $40 billion to rescue, repair, and security measures. a. Oct. 2001 US launched first military operation of war on terror- Afghanistan to attack Taliban and al-Qaeda bases there. b. Sept. 24, 2001- Bush issued executive order freezing all financial assets of suspected organizations & individuals involved in terrorism. c. Office of Homeland Security created d. 2001 Patriot Act- permitted secret government searches of suspected terrorists and supporters with one nationwide search warrant; easier to wiretap and track internet communications. African American The African-American church had always played an important organizational role in the black community. However, the most prominent political organization in the AfricanAmerican civil rights movement was the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People or NAACP. The NAACP focused its efforts on challenging segregation and championing civil rights in the federal courts. Thurgood Marshall led the NAACP team that won the Brown v. Board of Ed case that sparked the modern civil rights movement. Chicano Movement The two most prominent Chicano civil rights organizations were the G.I. Forum and the United Farm Workers. Begun as an organization to address the plight of Hispanic veterans after WWII, Hector P. Garcia expanded the mission of the G.I. Forum to include traditional civil rights issues: voting rights & discrimination. The United Farm Workers Union was led by farm worker turned labor/civil rights leader Cesar Chavez. Chavez started a group that supported farm workers’ rights and demanded increased wages and better working conditions. Chavez and the UFW organized nation-wide consumer boycotts of farm products, while he personally used hunger strikes to persuade state legislators to help farm workers. American Indian Movement In 1953, the Federal Government transferred its responsibility for those American Indians still living on reservations to state governments. Lacking sufficient funds, many states were unable or unwilling to provide the same level of services previously provided by the Federal Government. While President Nixon announced that the government would live up to its obligations, many Indians felt that they were being left behind. Under the slogan “Red Power,” they formed the American Indian Movement (AIM) to mobilize public opinion in their favor. As a priority, AIM sought greater respect for their heritage and introduced the term “Native American”. They dramatized the plight of Native Americans by temporarily occupying government monuments on Alcatraz Island and at Wounded Knee, South Dakota. Women's Movement While the women’s movement can trace its legacy back to the Seneca Falls Convention in 1848, important roles in both the abolitionist and later progressive movements, which culminated in the passage of the 19th Amendment; many women were dissatisfied with their roles as housewives and sought freedom to express themselves in careers and work. In 1963, Betty Friedan wrote The Feminine Mystique, which challenged the belief that education suburban housewives were their traditional lives as mothers and housewives. Freidan wrote that women were as capable as men and should b permitted to compete for the same jobs. In 1966, Friedan helped form the National Organization for Women (NOW), which became a leading voice for the Women’s movement. After 50 years of languishing in Congress, the Equal Rights Amendment, which would provide for equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged on account of sex, was passed in 1972. Unfortunately, not enough states ratified the ERA amendment to make it a Constitutional amendment and it has been in political limbo ever since. Cesar Chavez Cesar Chavez was a Mexican American labor activist and leader of the United Farm Workers. During the 20th century he was a leading voice for migrant farm workers (people who move from place to place in order to find work). His tireless leadership focused national attention on these laborers' terrible working conditions, which eventually led to improvements. Hector P. Garcia Hispanic doctor, Dr. Hector P. García was infuriated by the unfair treatment of Mexican Americans that he saw in Texas when he returned from WWII, so he organized the American G.I. Forum in 1948. The group’s original purpose was to improve veterans’ benefits and their medical care. Before long, the organization was also dealing with such issues as housing, education and vocational training, the poll tax, voter registration hospitalization, and employment. Betty Friedan Betty Friedan was an American writer, activist, and feminist. A leading figure in the Women's Movement in the United States, her 1963 book The Feminine Mystique is often credited with sparking the "second wave" of American feminism in the 20th century. In 1966, Friedan founded and was elected the first president of the National Organization for Women, which aimed to bring women "into the mainstream of American society now [in] fully equal partnership with men". Mendez v. Westminster In 1945, some places in California sent Mexican-American children to separate public schools. Several of these Mexican-American parents challenged this practice in the U.S. district court. The district court ruled that this practice violated the 14th Amendment, which guarantees citizens the right to the “equal protection” of the laws. Westminister School District appealed to the U.S. Court of Appeals. The latter concluded that the case did not involve a constitutional question. California law at the time required the segregation of Chinese or Japanese children, but did not “include segregation of school children because of their Mexican blood.” The court held that separation with a race was not permitted if not required by a specific state law. The court thus did not need to rule on the 14th Amendment. Later that year, California repealed its school segregation laws. Hernandez v. Texas Pete Hernandez was convicted of murder in a Texas court by an all-white “Anglo” jury. No Mexican-American had served on a jury in the county where Hernandez was tried for more than 25 years. Hernandez appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court, claiming his right to “equal protection of the law” under the 14th Amendment had been violated. The State of Texas argued that Mexican-Americans where “white” and not entitled to any special protection. The Supreme Court ruled that Mexican-Americans formed a separate class that was entitled to protection. Hernandez had “the right to be tried by juries from which members of his class are not excluded.” Delgado v. Bastrop I.S.D. After the Mendez ruling in California in 1948, the Texas Attorney General decided that the segregation of Mexican-American children in schools was illegal. Delgado and others sued Bastrop ISD, claiming that the separation of Mexican-American children from other children of the same race without a specific state law was a violation. The U.S. District Court agreed, and ordered the school district to stop the segregation of Mexican-American children. Edgewood I.S.D. v. Kirby In 1971, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that children do not have a fundamental right under the Constitution to an education. Civil rights activists then filed lawsuits in various state courts, based on the provisions of state constitutions. A Mexican-American legal group (MALDEF) filed suit against William Kirby, the Texas Education Commissioner, on behalf of Edgewood ISD, a poor district with a large Hispanic population. The school district claimed that the state method for funding public schools resulted in major differences between the funds available for students in rich and poor districts. This violated the Texas Constitution, which promised a “fair and efficient” public school system. The Texas Supreme Court agreed with the school district and ordered the state to create a more equitable system of public school finance, which called for a transfer of money from property-wealthy school districts to poor ones to equalize the amount each district spent to educate students. The press nicknamed this redistribution scheme, and similar proposals suggested later, the "Robin Hood" plan. Sweatt v. Painter In 1950, the NAACP won an important case involving the right of Heman Sweatt, an African-American, to attend the University of Texas Law School. Texas argued that its constitution prohibited integrated education. UT even created a separate law school for blacks, just to keep Sweatt out. The U.S. Supreme Court ruled that this separate school failed to qualify as “separate but equal” since differences in its facilities, such as the isolation of its students from future lawyers being trained in Austin, with whom its students would later interact. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) The 1962 publication of Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring provided an environmental focus for a growing number of Americans during the 1960s. The mounting concern about environmental degradation – highlighted by the use of the defoliant Agent Orange in Vietnam – put pressure on the US Government to do something. In 1970, President Nixon signed a law that created the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to protect the environment. The EPA sets air and water pollution s for cities, and engages in monitoring and enforcement activities. New construction projects must pass detailed environmental impact reviews before being approved. Private citizens can file lawsuits against polluters under the EPA. Endangered Species Act In 1973, President Nixon signed the Endangered Species Act, which requires the Fish and Wildlife Service to list species of plants and animals that are threatened with extinction, and then take steps to protect them.