Vocabulary, Comprehension
and the Common Core:
Adolescents
Judy K. Montgomery, PhD. CCC-SLP
Chapman University Irvine, CA
Email: montgome@chapman.edu
Learning Objectives
Participants will be able to:
1. Apply 4 types of vocabulary to content areas
2. Compare and contrast effective vocabulary
strategies
3. Write goals to measure student progress
4. Dramatically increase student skills in literate
language and academic vocabulary
We already know that …
Limited vocabulary is a hallmark of underdeveloped language skills and a serious obstacle to
acquiring literacy and academic standards.
Since vocabulary is first learned indirectly, then
directly, students may have a small number of
words at their disposal due to a lack of
experience, a lack of instruction, or a language
disability.
(Today’s question is: how do I link vocabulary intervention to the
common core state standards ?)
Scientifically based research
“means research that involves the
application of rigorous, systematic and
objective procedures to obtain reliable and
valid knowledge relevant to education
activities and programs.”
(Zirkel, 2009, p. 38.)
from NCLB (ESEA).
Educators Must Make
Informed Decisions (Zirkel, 2009)
•
•
•
•
•
•
Read, think, and compare
Know your students/clients well
Attend PD and CE
Be watchful and alert for change/growth
Collect and use data
Be able to select another strategy quickly
Evidence-based statements may
clarify what to do
• Data originated in the research literature
• Have been investigated within a body of
child development – not theory
• Are easier to understand and use than
research “conclusions”.
• Often found in the implications of Levels 1,
2, 3 research articles
Examples of EBP Statements
• Students learn vocabulary directly when
they are explicitly taught individual
words and word-learning strategies (NRP,
2000).
• Approaches that teach word meanings
as part of a semantic field are especially
effective for children with low initial
vocabularies (Marmolejo, 1991).
Vocabulary Instruction for School Age Children
• School dictates the way in which language is used.
• Gradually strengthen the relationship between oral language
(speaking) and literacy (reading).
• Move from a developmental (how to do it) focus to functional
performance (how to use it)
• Narrative, then expository text dominate (60/40 %).
• Basic literacy skills give way to the development of written
text.
• Remain sensitive to cultural/linguistic background of students
throughout all stages/ages.
Samples of EBP Statements for
Language Instruction
• Vocabularies increase in size and depth
• Utterance length increases by one word per
year until age 9 - tapers off. (Adult = 14)
• Use of complex sentences increases with age
• Metalinguistic awareness -“word
consciousness” develops
• Reciprocal relationship between oral language
skills and literacy (Roth et al, 2005)
SLP decides if vocabulary
intervention will target:
Size
Depth
More words overall; in which of the
4 types of vocabulary; in which
languages; aligned with which tiers;
and connected to all or some
curricular areas or standards???
More definitions for words
already known; multiple
meanings; antonyms and
synonyms; more uses for known
words; more languages; aligned
with topics/purposes???
Should I go deeper…?
Should I go wider…..?
Today, the target is
vocabulary interventions for adolescents!
• the words we use to communicate
• “ready access to lexical items” (Gallagher, 2004)
• gained from experience with extended
discourse
• transferred from oral to written language
• Plays a critical part in learning to read
• Helps students make sense of the words
they see by comparing them to the words
they have heard
• Is one of the 5 building blocks of reading
• Can be divided into four types
Four types of vocabulary




Listening
Speaking
Reading
Writing
Teaching Students to Read
•
•
•
•
•
Phonemic awareness
Phonics
Fluency
Vocabulary
Text comprehension
National Reading Panel, 2001
Vocabulary Demands on
Students are Daunting
• 450,000 words in
English- largest
vocabulary of
languages in use today
• Students must learn
3,000 words per year
by 3rd grade.
• Only 400 words a year
are directly taught by
teachers.
• Academic demands
are high
• However, everyday
speech consists of
only 5,000- 7,000
words.
• Conversation cannot
make up the difference
(Frey & Fisher, 2007).
7 Principles of Vocabulary Acquisition
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Have a variety of rich experiences- and then talk about
these events
Relate words to students’ lives
Establish word relationships
Develop depth of meaning
Provide frequent exposure
Create an interest in words
Use vocabulary acquisition tools independently
(Gunning, 2004)
Typical Vocabulary Growth
• Typical children begin
first grade with a
6,000 word spoken
vocabulary
• Learn 36,000 more
words by 12th grade
• Learn 10 words a day
(Chall, 87; Gunning, 04; Nagy &
Herman, 1987)
10 New Words a Day!
“I don’t think so!”
“What’s really happening?”
Initial representations of
word meanings are highly
fragile, difficult to
retrieve. Only after
multiple exposures over
time does the child own
the word. (McGregor, 2010).
“On any given day,
then, it might not be
that children are
learning 10 words;
they might instead be
learning 1/100th of
each of a thousand
different words” (Bloom,
2000, p. 25)
Common Core State Standards
in Vocabulary
• SLPs must connect
semantic (vocabulary)
interventions to
academic language
performance and
common core state
standards (CCSS).
•There are standards in
vocabulary acquisition
at every grade level, in
every subject area, in
every state.
Vocabulary is a great
choice for direct
therapy intervention
and classroom
support!
Common Core State Standards
(CCSS)
• Speaking and
Listening Standards
• Reading Standards
• Writing Standards
• Language Standards
Sample Standards in Vocabulary
A. Apply word analysis and vocabulary
skills to comprehend selections.
EARLY ELEMENTARY
1.A.1a Apply word analysis skills (e.g., phonics, word patterns) to recognize new
words.
1.A.1b Comprehend unfamiliar words using context clues and prior knowledge;
verify meanings with resource materials.
LATE ELEMENTARY
1.A.2a Read and comprehend unfamiliar words using root words, synonyms,
antonyms, word origins and derivations.
1.A.2b Clarify word meaning using context clues and a variety of resources
including glossaries, dictionaries and thesauruses.
Standards continued
MIDDLE/JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL
1.A.3a Apply knowledge of word origins and derivations to comprehend words
used in specific content areas (e.g., scientific, political, literary,
mathematical).
1.A.3b Analyze the meaning of words and phrases in their context.
EARLY HIGH SCHOOL LATE
1.A.4a Expand knowledge of word origins and derivations and use idioms,
analogies, metaphors and similes to extend vocabulary development.
1.A.4b Compare the meaning of words and phrases and use analogies to
explain the relationships among them.
HIGH SCHOOL
1.A.5a Identify and analyze new terminology applying knowledge of word
origins and derivations in a variety of practical settings.
1.A.5b Analyze the meaning of abstract concepts and the effects of particular
word and phrase choices.
What Investigators Say…
“The Common Core State Standards are here,
and school-based SLPs are in a prime position to
help students.”
Core Commitment by Barbara J. Ehren, Jean
Blosser, Froma Roth, Diane R. Paul and
Nickola W. Nelson, The ASHA Leader, April 3,
2012.
Copyright © 2012 •
MindWing Concepts, Inc. • 1888-228-9746 •
What ASHA Says…
• Based on their focused expertise in language,
SLPs offer assistance in addressing the
linguistic and metalinguistic foundations of
curriculum learning for students:
– with disabilities
– other learners who are at risk for school failure
– those who struggle in school settings
Copyright © 2012 •
http://www.asha.org/docs/html/PS2010-00318.html
MindWing
Concepts,
http://www.asha.org/docs/html/PI2010-00317.html
Inc. • 1-888-228-9746
•
www.mindwingconcept
s.com
Communicative Competence:
The Goal of the
• CCSS for Multi-Disciplinary English and
Language Arts Literacy is to:
– Incorporate all types of text
– Have a foundation in oral language development
– Require integration of the language processes of
Listening & Speaking, Reading, Writing and Language
• The “core” of the Core is oral language
development.
Copyright © 2012 • MindWing
Concepts, Inc. • 1-888-228-9746 •
www.mindwingconcepts.com
Communicative Competence:
The Goal of the
is comprehension, that is
using knowledge!
The “core” of the Core is
oral language development.
Eligibility for Speech and
Language Services
• Is there a disability condition
(communication disorder)?
• Does the disability have an adverse effect on
educational performance?
• If so, are specially designed instruction and
support services needed for student to make
progress in the curriculum?
SLP Services Matter!
How to use the CCSS
• Read a CCSS
standard.
• Determine if the
student can perform it
at grade level.
• If not, describe what
the student can do and
cannot do.
• Write the goal
highlighting the
timeline, conditions of
performance,
observable behavior,
level of performance.
• By ___, student will
demonstrate ____.
Sample
• By May 2015, Jessica will be able to
demonstrate reading vocabulary flexibility
by replacing words with appropriate
synonyms in her weekly written work for 15
out of 20 target words in US history.
• (Look for the connection to the curriculum.)
The Myth of Age or
Grade Level Vocabulary
• Students do not learn
vocabulary words
based on their age or
their grade.
• They learn words
based on their
experiences.
The Good News? You can never
(Beck, et al, 2002)
select the wrong words to teach.
How shall we select the words
for instruction ????
Ways to Select Words for
Instruction
•
•
•
•
The Book of Lists
Beck’s Tiered Words
Curriculum Words
Linguistically Relevant Vocabulary
Reading Teacher’s Book of Lists
Why use a list?
-Engaging
-Meaningful
-Short, medium, long
-Categorical thinking
-Collect lists
Sample Lists
Nonreversible word pairs (61)
• bacon and eggs
• knife and fork
• law and order
• lock and key
• lost and found
• pots and pans
• sooner or later
• fun and games
• in and out (List 26)
Signal words (225)
• Continuation signals
– and; again; secondly, with,
one reason; finally; next
• Time signals
– when, once, soon later, final,
during, before
• Emphasis signals
– Above all; key feature;
especially relevant; vital
(List 118)
More non-reversible pairs
Collocations
In and _____
Front and ______
Sing and _____
More or ______
Friend or ______
Salt and _____
Heads or ______
Supply and ____
• Make
• Do
• Catch
• Have
• Take
Tack up lists in your room- have students add
words to them each day …
More examples…
Add to a list…
Think of a
Middle School topic?
science topic
High School topic?
Bringing Words to Life
• Book by Beck, McKeown,
and Kucan (2002).
• Presents 3 types of
vocabulary (tiers).
– 1- basic vocabulary
– 2- high frequency
– 3- subject related
Bringing Words to Life
• Robust Vocabulary
Instruction
• 2nd edition
• 2013
• New studies on Tier 2
words
• Instruction should be
“vigorous, strong and
powerful”
Three Word Tiers
(oral or written vocabulary)
• Tier 1- basic words (happy, clean, fast)
• Tier 2- high frequency words; mature
language users; multiple meanings;
used in many settings
(cluster, sympathy, estimate)
• Tier 3- low frequency, specific words
(lathe, chasm, warp)
(Beck, McKeowen & Kucan, 2002)
Selecting Vocabulary Words to
Teach- the Big Q!
• Approximately 7,000
words in Tier 2
• Teach 400 per year
(10 per week).
• Research shows this
will have an impact
• Which 400 words?
• Struggling learners consider 3 per week.
(Beck, et al, 2002)
Intervene Using Tier 2 Words
1. Choose fiction or
non-fiction book
read in class
2. Read one page
3. Highlight all the
Tier 2 words
4. Select 3 of the most
useful ones
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Student definitions from
context
Provide student friendly
definitions
Practice repeatedly
Use in oral communication
Reinforce in reading and
writing.
(Beck et al, 2002)
Strategy
Selecting words for students
reading 1-2 years below peers
•
•
•
•
SLP reads any page of current book to self.
Selects Tier 2 words
Decides on 3 useful words
Proceeds to instruct
Let’s say you choose
these words
•
•
•
•
•
•
Mask
Vague
Clarification
Augment
Brand
Crystal
Now, select only 3 of these
words for intervention
• Mask
• Clarification
• Brand
Selecting Vocabulary in a
Clinically Relevant Way
• Let’s practice
selecting Tier 2
words.
• Here is a good book
to read aloud.
I went to the kitchen drawer and took out a
lump of beeswax, a candle, a small funnel
with a wooden handle, and some packets of
yellow, red, and black dye.
Selecting Vocabulary in a
Linguistically Relevant Way
• Let’s practice
selecting Tier 2
words.
• Here is a book I
think you might use
in 4th 5th grade.
Dear Mrs. LaRue,
I’d like to clear up some misconceptions about
the Hibbons’ cats. First, they are hardly the
little angels Mrs. Hibbons makes them out to
be. Second, how should I know what they
were doing out on the fire escape in the middle
of January? They were being a bit
melodramatic, don’t you think, the way they
cried and refused to come down? It’s hard to
believe they were really sick for three whole
days, but you know cats.
IEP Goals
• By March 2015, Jamil will recognize 45 selected Tier Two
words (3 per week for 15 weeks) with 85% accuracy, as
measured by his ability to say or write a student-friendly
definition for each.
• By the third report card period, Christina will read, write
and correctly use 15 of 45 selected Tier Two words from a
list in an essay on a topic of her choice in class.
Focus on Selected Tier 2 Words
1. Teach the words explicitly for 5 sessions.
2. Use student-friendly definitions
3. Search for the words in other places
4. “Over-use” in both oral and written language
activities
5. Say, show and read the words often.
6. Review words one month later
Why is this an effective
instructional technique?
•
•
•
•
•
•
Uses research based strategies
Words selected in a linguistically relevant way
Provides explicit instruction
Ties to life experiences of students
Increased repetitions of the words
Engages students with an emotional response
(Beck, et al, 2002; Nelson & Van Meter,2005)
A new vocabulary assessment tool based on
Beck’s research and theory of vocabulary
acquisition using tiers- 1, 2, 3.
Montgomery Assessment of
Vocabulary Acquisition
(MAVA)
MAVA™ Montgomery Assessment of Vocabulary Acquisition™
Ages 3;0-12;11
What does it do?
•
•
•
•
•
Ages 3:0 to 12:11 years
Assess receptive vocabulary in English
Assess expressive vocabulary in English
Compare scores for diagnostic decisions
Determine intervention needs for three types of
vocabulary- tiers 1, 2, 3 (Beck, McKeown & Kucan, 2002)
• Measure increased word knowledge for language
and reading progress
• Make valid decisions for Title I, RtI, special ed
t
Example:
Point to …
©2008 Super Duper® Publications
Example:
What are
these?
©2008 Super Duper® Publications
©2008 Super Duper® Publications
Qualitative Interpretation of
Performance
• Enter the data from a child's record form and automatically
generate the percentage of tier one, two, or three words the
child answered correctly.
• The Qualitative Response Analyzer will automatically
count items incorrect after six consecutive checked items.
• http://www.superduperinc.com/products/view.asp
x?pid=MAVA22&view=HowToVideo
©2008 Super Duper® Publications
©2008 Super Duper® Publications
A Qualitative Analysis of Jeffrey’s Performance
on the Receptive Vocabulary Test of the MAVA™
©2008 Super Duper® Publications
™
©2008 Super Duper® Publications
Discussion of Goals for Jeffrey
• Long Term Goal – Jeffrey will increase the
number of tier 3 (content area) vocabulary
words he can recognize and use in his class.
– Short Term Goal – With minimal support,
Jeffrey will correctly match a written word
from a list of four plausible words to the
definition of 15 key items in his science unit
with 80% accuracy, 4 out of 5 times.
©2008 Super Duper® Publications
by Judy K. Montgomery, Ph.D.
Super Duper® Publications
©2008 Super Duper® Publications
What does research tell us?
• Most vocabulary is
learned indirectly
• Some vocabulary must
be taught directly
• Poor vocabulary is a
hallmark of language,
literacy, and cognitive
disabilities
How Children Learn Vocabulary
• First indirectly:
– Conversations with adults
– Listening to stories read by adults
– Reading extensively on their own
– Teachers and parents often call it “picking up
words” (Pence & Justice, 2008)
How Children Learn Vocabulary
• Next, directly:
–
–
–
–
Word consciousness
Word learning strategies
Repetition and review
Direct instruction – teach certain words!
Children learn word meanings
indirectly in three ways:
• Daily conversations
and oral language
experience with adults
and other children
• Listening to adults
read to them
• Reading extensively
on their own
Students at risk, English learners often do not
learn words indirectly because:
• They don’t engage in
conversation as often
• They don’t alert to new
or interesting words
• They often don’t listen
carefully when read to
• They usually don’t read
independently or for
pleasure
These students may benefit from
direct instruction in vocabulary
• Direct instruction includes:
• Specific word instruction
• Word learning strategies
• Intensive sessions
• Repetitions
• Active engagement
Examples of Evidence-based
Strategies to Increase
Vocabulary
Strategy
These EB teaching lessons will:
• Include all four
vocabulary types
• Combine print and
speech supports
• Need to be modified
for grades and ages
• Require many
repetitions to be
successful
Intervention Strategies
•Bloom’s Taxonomy
•Reverse Brainstorming
•Object Definition
•Free Rice
Matches with CCSS Tasks
•
•
•
•
Content areas
Q and A format
Reinforces listening, speaking, reading
Typically involve lists, categories, parts
to wholes, critical content, sequence
• May be created/written by students
• Power vocabulary
EBP Statements
• Maximize the number of
responses in a limited
amount of time to get
vocabulary growth (Paul,
2001; Gillon, 2007)
• Struggling learners may
need as many as 25 trials
to acquire novel words
compared to 9-11 trials for
typical learners (Pence &
Justice, 2008; Gray, 2003).
• Provide a definition and a
lexical contrast to
establish a more detailed
understanding and longer
retention of new words
(Paul, 2001; Gillon, 2007)
• Word consciousness-- an
awareness and interest in
words, their meanings and
their power-- fosters
vocabulary growth (NRP,
2000).
Action Words for Bloom’s Taxonomy
(2012)
• Know
–
–
–
–
name
list
Tell
duplicate
• Understand
–
–
–
–
describe
express
cite
convert
• Apply
–
–
–
–
solve
sketch
manipulate
transfer
• Analyze
–
–
–
–
separate
deduce
calculate
prioritize
More Bloom’s …
• Evaluate
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
reframe
criticize
order
assess
predict
estimate
justify
persuade
• Create
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
design
combine
hypothesize
anticipate
infer
intervene
simulate
devise
Reverse Brainstorming
An instructional strategy to use
at the secondary level
Classroom Discourse
Brainstorming
Teacher/leader, highly
knowledgeable in a topic, asks
students to think of words,
ideas, and concepts they believe
belong. Leader records
responses in view of students,
but frequently provides most
information him/herself.
Reverse Brainstorming
Teacher/leader/SLP, less expert
in a topic, provides a list of
words and asks students to cross
out the words that do not belong
to this topic. All students
participate in oral and written
forms.
Example: Reverse Brainstorming
Palm trees
tall
in sunny climates
easy to climb
flowers
coconuts
grapefruit
fronds
Example: Reverse Brainstorming
Voice disorders
15-25% of children
pitch
loudness
quality
abuse
allergies or trauma
tongue
6-9% of children
Example: Reverse Brainstorming
U.S. government
Congress
democracy
carbonated
Senate
monarchy
veto
executive branch
olive branch
rouge
voter
Reverse Brainstorming – Summary
•
•
•
•
Use core curriculum content
Provide list of correct vocabulary, plus foils
Use words already introduced
Students actively cross out the words they are not going to discuss
(This means they have to mentally address the meaning of each
word, or they will do unnecessary work – surprisingly motivating!)
• 15-second discussion on each remaining word with partner
• 1-minute discussion on each remaining word with a group of four
• Eliminates the long, unproductive pauses from students who cannot
“brainstorm” topics they do not yet understand
Strategy
Object Description
(Zimmerman, 2007)
• Many students cannot
retain definitions of
words.
• Others cannot write or
recall them.
• Writing student-friendly
definitions is an important
step in vocabulary
development (Beck et al, 2002)
• Students do not know
the structure of a word
definition.
• Combined with poor
memory skills, they
fail to store or retrieve
definitions, and thus
“forget” words.
Student’s typical definitions
• “is when”
• A pedestal is when you stand on something
tall.
• A tornado is when the wind blows really
hard and you can get hurt.
• Choose is when you pick someone.
Object Description
1. What is it called? __________
2. What is the category? _________
3. What do you do with it? What does it do? ___
4. What does it look like? __________
5. What parts does it have?__________
6. What does it feel like?____________
7. Where can I find it?___________________
Next, Build a Definition
A _____(#1)______ is a(n)
________(# 2)________ that
_____(#3)_______. It
_______(#4, 5, 6 or 7)_________
and ____(#4, 5, 6 or 7)_________.
Object Description
1. What is
it called? _vestibule_________
2. What is the category? _small space that comes
before a more important place_
3. What do you do with it? What does it do? _hold
supplies__
4. What does it look like? _small________
5. What parts does it have?__door________
6. What does it feel like?____________
7. Where can I find it?_near the main door of homes
and buildings_______
Last step, write definition
without the frame
A vestibule is an area or space that
comes before a more important
area. It is small, may hold
supplies, and you can find it near
the main door of some homes and
buildings.
Object Description- practice
1. What is it called? _chasm_________
2. What is the category? _geological feature___
3. What does it do? ___occurs in rocky areas__
4. What does it look like? __ deep________
5. What parts does it have?__________
6. What does it feel like?__dangerous______
7. Where can I find it?___in deserts_________
Next, Build a Definition
A _____(#1)______ is a(n)
________(# 2)________ that
_____(#3)_______. It
_______(#4, 5, 6 or 7)_________
and ____(#4, 5, 6 or 7)_________.
Student Definition(s)
• Definition 1
• Definition 2
• A chasm is geological
feature of the earth
that occurs in rocky
areas. It may be deep
and dangerous and
you can find it in
deserts.
• A chasm is a natural
thing that makes it
hard for you to cross.
It looks like a valley
and sometimes you
find it in a cave.
Different Process
to Recall Words
• Using a picture or
photograph
• Using a printed
word
Dog
Math Vocabulary
• Don’t teach the math- teach the math
vocabulary- in class or pullout.
• Names, categories, phonological loop
• Repetitions, engagement
• Experiences
• Opposites
• All 4 types of vocabulary
Math Vocabulary- 6th grade curriculum
Category: Math words- all nouns (content words)
line prism perimeter pyramid hundred
fraction coin dollar calendar clock timer
spinner ruler scale thermometer tape
measure graph grid pattern set unit point
corner noon temperature percent week
sum blank sign size share
Apps for Vocabulary Building
• Describe It (Smartie
Ears)
• Get + Together
• Read Vocabulary
Language Adventures
• Chain of Thought
• Word Wit
• GRE Vocabulary
(Brainscope)
Strategy
Freerice
• A vocabulary game on
the internet
• For each word you get
right, 20 grains of rice
are donated to the UN
World Food Program
to help end hunger.
• Check on the answer
that best defines the
word
• If you get it right you get
a harder word; if you get
it wrong you get an
easier word
• Individual or small
group interaction.
http://www.freerice.com
Sample
• You can choose to have each word
read to you.
• There are 64 levels. Few people
can go beyond 50.
Alert means
–
–
–
–
fierce
watchful
holy
little
• WARNING: this game may make
you smarter, improve your
speaking, thinking, writing,
grades, and job performance.
www.freerice.com
Excellent for English
learners to practice
Adjusts to a person’s
level of use, and
gradually moves you
up.
After you have done
FreeRice for a couple of
days, you may notice an
odd phenomenon. Words
that you have never
consciously used before
will begin to pop into
your head while you are
speaking or writing. You
will feel yourself using
and knowing more
words.
www.freerice.com
• FreeRice began October 7, 2007.
• 126 countries are part of the FreeRice
Vocabulary Project.
• Located at the UN World Food Program
in Rome.
• 98, 891,765,680 grains of rice have
been distributed as of Sept. 7, 2015.
Hunger is the world’s greatest health risk,
and its greatest solvable problem!
FreeRice is a sister site of the world poverty site, Poverty.com.
FreeRice has two goals:
Provide English vocabulary to everyone for free.
Help end world hunger by providing rice to hungry people for free.
This is made possible by the sponsors who advertise on this site.
Whether you are CEO of a large corporation or a street-child in a
poor country, improving your vocabulary can improve your life. It
is a great investment in yourself.
Perhaps even greater is the investment your donated rice makes in
hungry human beings, enabling them to function and be
productive. Somewhere in the world, a person is eating rice that
you helped provide.
Thank you.
Vocabulary is increased:
• Indirectly by encouraging
conversation, oral language
practice, reading to
students, and having them
read often
• Directly by teaching words
explicitly, word learning
strategies, and becoming
word conscious.
References
Beck, I. McKeown & Kucan, L., (2002). Bringing words to life. NY: Guilford.
Biemiller, A. (2005). Size and sequence in vocabulary development: Implications for
choosing words for primary grade vocabulary instruction. In E.H. Hiebert and M. Kamil
(Eds.), Teaching and learning vocabulary: Bringing research to practice (pp. 223-245).
Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Bloom, P. (2000). How children learn the meanings of words. Cambridge,MA: MIT Press.
Bloom’s Taxonomy Words – new order (2012). http://uwf.edu/cutla/SLP/ActionWords.pdf
Graves, M. F. (2006) The vocabulary book. NY: Teachers College Columbia.
Hoover, J.R. & Storkel, H.L. (2005). Understanding word learning by preschool children:
Insights from multiple tasks, stimulus characteristics, error analysis. ASHA Perspectives
on Language Learning and Education,12 (3), 8-12.
McGregor, K.K. (2010). Vocabulary instruction- Evidence for Five Instructional Strategies.
ASHA Self-Study Publication.
Montgomery, J.K. (2007). The bridge of vocabulary. Bloomington, MN: Pearson.
www.pearsonassessments.com/speechlanguage/
Montgomery, J.K. (2015). Classroom Discourse: Seeding Success, ASHA Webinar, May.
Montgomery, J.K. (2008). MAVA. Austin, TX: Pro Ed.
National Reading Panel, (2000). Put Reading First. Washington DC: National Institute for
Literacy. www.nifl.gov
Pence, K.L. & Justice, l. M. (2008). Language development from theory to practice. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Stahl, S. (1999). Vocabulary development. Cambridge. MA: Brookline.
* Images from Phillip Martin, Google