• Endocrine system
• Consists of ductless glands
• Secrete hormones directly into bloodstream
• Affect the function of specific body organs
• Regulates many intricate body functions

• Cells must communicate with one another to coordinate cell processes within tissues and to maintain homeostasis.
• Cell-to-cell communication is carried out via messenger molecules.

• Produced by endocrine (“ductless”) glands and secreted into the bloodstream.
• Endocrine hormones may affect a wide array of target cells to produce multiple effects.
• Two types: peptides (small proteins) and steroids (lipids).

• Peptide hormones do not enter the cell directly. These hormones bind to receptor proteins in the cell membrane.
• When the hormone binds with the receptor protein, a secondary messenger molecule initiates the cell response.
• Because peptide hormones are water soluble, they often produce fast responses.

peptide or amino acid-derived hormone
(first messenger)
1 The hormone binds to a receptor on the plasma membrane of a target cell
(extracellular fluid)
2 Hormone–receptor binding activates an enzyme that catalyzes the synthesis of a second messenger, such as cyclic AMP cyclic AMPsynthesizing enzyme
ATP
(cytoplasm) active enzyme receptor cyclic AMP
(second messenger) plasma membrane inactive enzyme reactant
3 The second messenger activates other enzymes product
4 The activated enzymes catalyze specific reactions nuclear envelope
(nucleus)

• Steroid hormones enter through the cell membrane and bind to receptors inside of the target cell.
• These hormones may directly stimulate transcription of genes to make certain proteins.
• Because steroids work by triggering gene activity, the response is slower than peptide hormones.

steroid hormone
1 A steroid hormone diffuses through the plasma membrane
(extracellular fluid)
2 The hormone binds to a receptor in the nucleus or to a receptor in the cytoplasm that carries it into the nucleus plasma membrane
5 The mRNA leaves the nucleus, then attaches to a ribosome and directs the synthesis of a specific protein product new protein ribosome hormone receptor
RNA polymerase mRNA
3 The hormone–receptor complex binds to DNA and causes RNA polymerase to bind to a nearby promoter site for a specific gene
DNA
4 RNA polymerase catalyzes the transcription of DNA into messenger RNA (mRNA) gene nuclear envelope
(cytoplasm) (nucleus)

• Many other organs besides the endocrine glands produce hormones.
• Kidneys produce several hormones that regulate blood pressure, which is essential for kidney function.
• The digestive system produces several hormones that regulate appetite.

• The thalamus receives sensory information, relays some to the hypothalamus.
• Hypothalamus monitors the body for temperature, pH, other conditions.
• Hypothalamus signals pituitary gland if conditions need to be corrected.

• Referred to as “master gland”
• Secretes hormones that control functions of other glands
• Known as hypophysis
• Has two distinct lobes with specific functions

• The pituitary is the “master gland” that signals other glands to produce their hormones when needed.
• The anterior lobe of the pituitary receives signals from the hypothalamus, and responds by sending out the appropriate hormone to other endocrine glands.
• The posterior pituitary receives oxytocin or antidiuretic hormone (ADH) from the hypothalamus, relays them to the body as necessary.

• Anterior Pituitary Gland = Adenohypophysis
• Secretes Growth Hormone (GH)
• Also called Somatotropic Hormone (STH)
• Regulates growth of bone, muscle, and other body tissues
• Secretes Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
• Stimulates normal growth and development of adrenal cortex and secretion of corticosteroids

• Anterior Pituitary Gland
• Secretes Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
• Promotes and maintains normal growth and development of the thyroid gland
• Stimulates secretions of the thyroid hormones
• Secretes Lactogenic Hormone (LTH)
• Also called Prolactin
• Promotes development of breasts during pregnancy
• Stimulates secretion of milk from breasts after delivery of baby

• Anterior Pituitary Gland
• Secretes Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
• Stimulates secretion of estrogen and production of eggs in the female ovaries
• Stimulates production of sperm in the male testes
• Secretes Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
• Stimulates female ovulation and the secretion of testosterone in the male
• Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone (MSH)
• Controls intensity of pigmentation in pigmented cells of the skin

• Posterior Pituitary Gland = Neurohypophysis
• Secretes Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
• Decreases excretion of large amounts of urine
• Increases reabsorption of water by the renal tubules
• Secretes Oxytocin (OT)
• Stimulates contraction of the uterus during childbirth
• Stimulates release of milk from the breasts of lactating women in response to the suckling reflex of the infant

• Located below the thalamus and above the pituitary gland
(=epiphysis)
• Regulates the pituitary gland secretions through two different mechanisms

• 1- Neurons, receiving information from receptors, fire APs which travel down to the post pituitary gland and stimulate the release of stored neurohormones –
Oxytocin (OT) and anti-diuretic hormone (ADH)

Regulation
Reflex
Hormone
Oxytocin
Reflex (osmoreceptor) ADH
(vasopressin)
Target organ
- Uterus (smooth muscle)
- breast tubules
(smooth muscles)
- DCT in kidney tubules
Action
-labor and delivery
- milk-let down
Pathology
--
--
- promote H2O reabsorption
- not enough: diabetes insipidus
- too much: ↑ BP?

• 2- Upon stimulation, secretory cells located in the hypothalamus secrete
“releasing” hormones which travel down a capillary bed toward the anterior pituitary gland (adenopituitary). Each type of releasing hormones will stimulate the secretion and release of a pituitary hormone.
• Hormones which control the secretion of other hormones are tropic hormones (found in hypothalamus and pituitary gland)

Anterior pituitary
Regulation
GHRH and GHIH
PRH - PIH
TRH
CRH
GnRH
Hormone
Growth hormone (GH) Many cells
Prolactin (PL)
Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
Gonadotropin
- Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
- Luteinizing hormone
(LH)
Target organ
(bones..)
Breast secretory cells
Thyroid gland
Stimulate gamete maturation
Action
Stimulate cell growth and cell division
Adrenal cortex (3 layers)
- stimulates secretion of adrenal cortex
Pathology
- not enough: children
 pituitary dwarfism too much: gigantism
(children) – acromegaly (adult)
-- milk secretion
- promote thyroid gland secretion (T3 and T4)
Stimulate gonadal gland secretion and gamete formation
- not enough: hypothyroidism
(cretinism in children)
- too much: hyperthyroidism
- not enough:
Addison's disease
- too much:
Cushing syndrome
- infertility
Figure 6.8

Pituitary Hormone
Follicle-stimulating hormone
Lutenizing hormone
Functions
Stimulates egg maturation in the ovary and release of sex hormones.
Stimulates maturation of egg and of the corpus luteum surrounding the egg, which affects female sex hormones and the menstrual cycle.
Stimulates the thyroid to release thyroxine.
Thyroid-stimulating hormone
Adrenocorticotropic hormone
Causes the adrenal gland to release cortisol.
Melanocyte-stimulating hormone
Stimulates synthesis of skin pigments.
Growth hormone Stimulates growth during infancy and puberty.
Antidiuretic hormone
Oxytocin
Signals the kidney to conserve more water.
Affects childbirth, lactation, and some behaviors.

Figure 6.6

Figure 6.5

• Tiny, pinecone-shaped gland
• Located behind dorsal aspect of midbrain region
• Plays a part in supporting body’s biological clock
• Regulation of patterns of eating, sleeping, and reproduction
• Secretes melatonin
• Induces sleep

• Located in front of the neck just below the larynx, on either side of the trachea
• Consists of a right and left lobe

• Secretes Triiodothyronine (T 3 )
• Helps regulate growth and development of body
• Helps control metabolism and temperature
• Secretes Thyroxine (T
4
)
• Helps maintain normal body metabolism
• Secretes Calcitonin
• Helps regulate the level of calcium in the blood

• Located in the neck, just below the larynx
• Secrete 2 types of hormone:
- thyroid hormones  stimulate cell metabolism, triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4) – iodine is needed to synthesize these hormones
- calcitonin  decrease blood calcium
Figure 6.8a

• T3 and T4 secreted by the follicular cells
• Stored as colloid
• Parafollicular cells
(C cells) secrete calcitonin

• Target organs: all cells
• Role: Increase cell metabolism, oxygen consumption
• Permissive role for some other hormones
(growth hormone)

Figure 6.7

• Four tiny rounded bodies located on dorsal aspect of thyroid gland
• Secrete Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
• Also known as parathormone
• Regulates level of calcium in blood

• Four nodules located in the back of the thyroid gland
• Secreted parathyroid hormone or parathormone or PTH
• Action of PTH opposes action of calcitonin
• Both hormones play a role in calcium metabolism, regulating the level of calcium in blood.

• Most calcium ions are stored in the bones
• Calcium is an important cofactor for enzymatic activity, plays a role in blood coagulation and action potentials.
• Calcitonin and PTH participate in calcium regulation
• Vitamin D helps PTH activity

Calcium regulation:
• Calcitonin promotes blood calcium decrease, by:
1. calcium deposition on bone
2. calcium dumping by the kidney
• PTH promotes blood calcium increase by:
1. bone resorption
2. calcium reabsorption by kidney
3. increase calcium absorption by intestine

Figure 23-20: Calcium balance in the body

Figure 19.20

• Single gland located in mediastinum near the middle of the chest, just beneath sternum
• Large in fetus and infants, shrinks with age
• Secretes thymosin and thymopoietin
• Stimulates production of T cells that are involved in the immune response

• Two small glands, one positioned atop each kidney
• Also known as suprarenal glands
• Consists of an adrenal cortex and an adrenal medulla
• Each has independent functions

• Adrenal cortex secretes corticosteroids
• Mineralocorticoids
• Regulate how mineral salts (electrolytes) are processed in the body
• Glucocorticoids
• Influence metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins in the body
• Necessary for maintaining normal blood pressure
• Have an anti-inflammatory effect on the body
• Increase glucose available during “fight-or-flight” responses by the body

• Adrenal cortex secretes
• Gonadocorticoids
• Sex hormones secreted in small amounts
• Contribute to secondary sex characteristics in males and females

• Adrenal medulla secretes catecholamines
• Epinephrine = adrenaline
• Sympathiomimetic agent
• Increases heart rate and force of heart muscle contraction
• Dilates bronchioles in the lungs
• Decreases peristalsis in the intestines
• Raises blood glucose levels by causing the liver to convert glycogen into glucose

• Adrenal medulla secretes
• Norepinephrine = noradrenaline
• Known as a sympathomimetic agent
• Produces a vasoconstrictor effect on the blood vessels, thereby raising blood pressure

Regulation
Reflex
Glands Hormones
Adrenal medulla Epinephrine
Target organs
ANS target organs
Action
Fight/flight
Pathology
Stress
Blood Pressure Adrenal cortex - Mineralocorticoid = aldosterone
DCT from renal tubule
- promote sodium reabsorption
Not enough"
Addison disease
CRH

ACTH
GnRH

GN
Glucocorticoid = cortisone
Estrogen
Testosterone
Many cells Mobilize fuels – stress adaptation
Excess hormone:
Cushing syndrome
Sexual organs - Sex organ maintenance
- Gamete development
Infertility

• Elongated gland located in upper left quadrant of the abdomen
• Behind the stomach
• Extends horizontally across the body
• Beginning at first part of small intestines and ending at edge of spleen
• Contains exocrine and endocrine glands
• The endocrine function is due to the cells of the islets of the Langerhans
-- α cells  glucagon
-- β  insulin
-- δ  somatostatin

• Islets of Langerhans secrete:
• Glucagon
• Increases blood glucose levels by stimulating liver to convert glycogen into glucose when blood sugar is extremely low
• Insulin
• Makes it possible for glucose to pass from blood through cell membranes to be used for energy
• Promotes conversion of excess glucose into glycogen for storage in the liver for later use

• Glucose level controlled by insulin and glucagon
• Insulin promotes a decrease in blood glucose
• Glucagon promotes an increase in blood glucose

Figure 3.21

• Type I: autoimmune disease  beta cells of the islets of Langerhans are destroyed by antibodies
• Type II: The cells become insulin-resistant
 glucose does not enter the cells as readily
• http://faculty.weber.edu/nokazaki/Human_Ph ysiology/Class%20notes/diabetes.htm

• Female sex glands = female gonads
• Pair of almond shaped glands
• Located in upper pelvic cavity, on either side of lateral wall of uterus
• Near fimbriated ends of the fallopian tubes
• Responsible for producing mature ova and releasing them at monthly intervals during ovulation

• Hormones secreted by the ovaries
• Estrogen
• Promotes maturation of ovum in the ovary
• Stimulates vascularization of uterine lining each month to prepare for implantation of a fertilized egg
• Contributes to secondary sex characteristic changes in female with onset of puberty
• Progesterone
• Primarily responsible for changes within the uterus in anticipation of a fertilized ovum
• Responsible for development of maternal placenta after implantation of a fertilized ovum

• Testes = male gonads = testicles
• Two small ovoid glands located in scrotum
• Primary organs of male reproductive system
• Responsible for production of sperm and secretion of androgens (male steroid hormones)
• Secrete testosterone
• Responsible for secondary sex characteristic changes that occur in male with onset of puberty
• Responsible for maturation of sperm

Gland
Thyroid
Hormones
Thyroxine
Calcitonin
Parathyroids Parathyroid hormone
Islet cells (in the pancreas)
Insulin
Glucagon
Testes Testosterone
Ovaries Estrogen
Progesterone
Adrenal cortex Epinephrine
Adrenal medulla
Glucocorticoids
Aldosterone
Testosterone (in both sexes)
Pineal gland Melatonin
Functions
Regulates metabolism
Inhibits release of calcium from the bones
Stimulates the release of calcium from the bones.
Decreases blood sugar by promoting uptake of glucose by cells.
Increases blood sugar by stimulating breakdown of glycogen in the liver.
Regulates sperm cell production and secondary sex characteristics.
Stimulates egg maturation, controls secondary sex characteristics.
Prepares the uterus to receive a fertilized egg.
Stimulates “fight or flight” response.
Part of stress response, increase blood glucose levels and decrease immune response.
Regulates sodium content in the blood.
Adult body form (greater muscle mass), libido.
Sleep cycles, reproductive cycles in many mammals.

• Examples:
• Thyroid and temperature control
• Thyroid, Parathyroid, and calcium
• Pancreas and glucose control