Body Systems Project
Pious Patel
Digestive System
Function
• To digest food and convert it into usable forms
for the rest of the body
– Glucose, proteins, nucleic acids, different lipids,
etc.
Organs and Their Functions
• Mouth (alimentary canal)
– Begins digestion
• Physical- teeth, saliva
• Chemical- saliva initiates carbohydrate digestion
• Pharynx (alimentary canal)
– Swallowing mechanism
• Esophagus (alimentary canal)
– Passageway between pharynx and stomach
Organs and Their Functions
• Stomach (alimentary canal)
– Digestion
• Physical- violent shaking
• Chemical- gastric juice (HCl, pepsin, and mucus)
– Begins protein digestion (and butterfat)
• Duodenum (alimentary canal)
– Receives chyme from stomach and mixes with
pancreatic juices and bile from liver
• Jejunum (alimentary canal)
– Majority of digestion here, longest segment
• Ileum (alimentary canal)
– Higher bacterial population
Organs and Their Functions
• Cecum (alimentary canal)
– Connects ileum with ascending colon
• Appendix (alimentary canal)
– Vestigial cecum, main site of enteric digestion in other
animals
• Colon
– Ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid
colons
– Absorbs 90% of water entering in chyme
– Houses many bacteria that break down fiber
• Synthesize Vitamin K and B12, thiamine, and riboflavin for us
Organs and Their Functions
• Rectum (alimentary canal)
– Triggers defecation reflex
– Makes internal anal sphincter relax
• Anus (alimentary canal)
– External opening of alimentary canal
– Constricted by both anal sphincters
• Salivary glands (accessory)
– Parotid, submandibular, and sublingual glands
– Secrete saliva for digestion in mouth
Organs and Their Functions
• Liver (accessory)
– Breaks down fats, converts amino acids, produced
bile, detoxifies alcohol, and many other catabolic
and anabolic processes
• Pancreas (accessory)
– Secretes pancreatic juice into duodenum
• Pancreatic amylase, pancreatic lipase, trypsin,
chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase, and many other
enzymes
Organs and Their Functions
• Gallbladder (accessory)
– Stores bile and injects into duodenum
– Not necessary, liver injects bile into duodenum as
well
• Internal anal sphincter (alimentary canal)
– Smooth muscle, involuntary control
• External anal sphincter (alimentary canal)
– Skeletal muscle, voluntary control
Why is digestion essential?
• Breaking down large food molecules is needed
so that the body can actually get the energy
and nutrients needed to function
• Enzymes are needed to actually go through
the process of breaking down and simplifying
the large food molecules. They are the final
digestion tools to simplify food into usable
units
Physical vs. Chemical Digestion
• Physical- not chemically changing food
– Only breaking it down into smaller pieces
• Chemical- changing chemical composition of
food
– Chemical reactions actually take place to change
the molecules and other chemical species
involved
Where certain digestion takes place
• Carbohydrate- begins in mouth
– Continues throughout alimentary canal
– Amylase (salivary and pancreatic), sucrase, lactase
• Protein- begins in stomach with denaturing
– Pepsin, trypsin, chymotrypsin
• Fat- begins in mouth
– Vast majority in small intestine
– Lipase (lingual and pancreatic) and bile
Colorectal Cancer
• Fourth most common cancer
– 143,460 estimated new cases for 2012
– 56,000 annual deaths in U.S.
• Symptoms- change in frequency or
consistency of B.M.’s, blood in feces,
abdominal pain, weight loss, fatigue, vomiting
• Treated by surgical excision and common
anticancer treatments
Liver Cancer
• Cancer of the liver
• 28,720 estimated new cases for 2012
– 20,550 estimated deaths for 2012
• Symptoms- very subtle, some include
unexplained weight loss or fevers and sudden
complication in a cirrhosis patient
• Common anticancer treatments and surgery
can be used to treat it
Sources
• Medicinenet.com
• National Cancer Institute
• Professor Chad Caldwell’s
Human Anatomy
Notetaking Guide
Cardiovascular System
Functions of
• The overall system- transporting nutrients and
other raw materials to the body cells, as well
as serving as a highway for the immune
system and maintaining homeostasis
• Arteries- made of thick, strong smooth muscle
– To transport oxygenated blood (except for
pulmonary arteries) to the body cells
– Strong muscle helps maintain blood pressure and
moves oxygenated blood quickly and effectively to
the body
Functions of
• Capillaries- very small and thin vessel
– “The end of the branch”
– Gives nutrients and materials to cells as of one of the
very many small streams that the giant rivers
(arteries) fork out into
• Veins- Loose, large volume, many valves
– Transports deoxygenated blood (except for pulmonary
veins) back to heart
– Sort of the blood reservoir
– Valves help control the flow of blood against gravity
by preventing backflow
How the blood goes through the heart
• Deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium by
the inferior and superior vena cavas (veins)
• As soon as the tricuspid valve opens, the right
atrium pumps the blood into the right ventricle
• The right ventricle pumps the blood into the
pulmonary trunk, which branches into the right
and left pulmonary arteries
• The pulmonary arteries carry the blood to the
lungs to be oxygenated
How the blood goes through the heart
• The pulmonary veins bring the oxygenated
blood back to the heart into the left atrium
• The left atrium pumps the blood into the left
ventricle once the mitral valve has been
opened
• The left ventricle then pumps the blood for
the last time, sending it to the aorta and
onwards to the rest of the body
Composition of blood
• Plasma- 55% of blood volume
– Watery portion containing dissolved proteins
• Thrombocytes- platelets, cell fragments that
stick to broken surfaces to make a plug that
stops bleeding
• Leukocytes- white blood cells, fight against
foreign invaders
• Erythrocytes- red blood cells, carry oxygen to
the body cells
Erythrocyte structure
• Anucleated- nucleus removed from cell so as
to increase surface area to maximize oxygen
capacity
• Oxygen complexes to hemoglobin in a weak,
temporary bond that is broken when
erythrocyte reaches a body cell that needs it
Open vs. Closed Circulatory Systems
• Closed- ours, along with most vertebrates
– Blood closed at all times inside vessels
• Open- most invertebrates, such as crayfish
– Blood still pumped by heart, but fills body cavities
and surrounds tissues
– Not contained by vessels, blood is freer to move
around the body
Four Circulatory System Variations
Fish
• Overall very similar to mammalian
• Oxygenation of blood is done by gills, not lungs
• Structure of organs is obviously different from
ours, but same basic concepts
• Blood is moved through contraction
hypobronchial muscles when being oxygenated
• Very similar to ancestral circulatory system
• Sinus venosus- initial collecting chamber in heart
Amphibian
• Very similar overall system to ours
• Three-chambered heart
– Two atria, one ventricle
– The one ventricle means oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood mixing occurs
• Unlike fish, blood is always under full pressure
Reptiles
• Very, very similar to amphibians
– Three-chambered heart
– But, have a septum that closes in the ventricle to
reduce mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated
blood
Mammals
•
•
•
•
Four-chambered heart, double circuit pump
Most complex and sophisticated
No primitive sinus venosus
Basically all the same as humans’
Leukemia
• Cancer of white blood cells
• Symptoms- fever, persistent infections,
weakness, fatigue, weight loss, easy bleeding,
tiny red spots on skin
• 44,600 estimated to have it in 2011
• Treated by basic cancer therapies
(chemotherapy, radiation, etc.)
Atherosclerosis
• Cholesterol and saturated fats form plaques
on artery walls that restrict blood flow
• Symptoms- chest pains, weakness, high blood
pressure
• Treated by change in diet and exercise and
medication
• About 4.6 million people in U.S. are affected
by it
Sources
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
http://www.earthlife.net/fish/blood.html
http://www.shsu.edu/~bio_mlt/Chapter12.html
Talktalk.co.uk
Seer.cancer.gov
Mayoclinic.com
Bettermedicine.com
Professor Chad Caldwell’s Human Anatomy
Notetaking Guide
Respiratory System
Functions
• To exchange gases between body and
atmosphere
• Maintaining homeostasis
• Providing oxygen for respiration and carbon
dioxide to maintain pH of blood
Alveoli
• Very high surface area to volume ratio to
increase gas exchange
• Capillaries cover 70% of surface area
• Great Alveolar Cells secrete surfactant to
increase gas exchange
How O2 and CO2 are transported
• Diffused into blood through lungs
– Most of O2 transported by hemoglobin
– CO2 transported as bicarbonate, by hemoglobin,
and in plasma
• Blood carries O2 to cells and CO2 away from
cells
How air is drawn in
• Inhalation
– Contraction of diaphragm increases lung volume
– This decreases pressure in lungs
– Higher atmospheric pressure causes air to enter
lungs
• Exhalation
– Inverse of above process, diaphragm rests,
increases lung pressure, air leaves lungs
Emphysema
• Cigarette smoking causes bronchioles to lose
elasticity, cause alveoli to burst
• Shortness of breath, fatigue
• 18/1000 people have it
• 15 times more likely in people who smoke at
least a pack a day
• Antibiotics, bronchiodilators, other drugs
Lung Cancer
• Cancer that invades the lungs
• Symptoms- unusual coughs, chest pain,
coughing blood, wheezing, weight loss
• Prevalence- 226,160 people will get it in 2012
• Treatments- radiation, chemotherapy, drugs,
etc.
Sources
•Professor Chad
Caldwell’s Human
Anatomy Notetaking
Guide
•
http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/298283-overview
•
http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/types/lung
Immune System
• Function- To protect the body from foreign
invaders
Organs of Immune System
• Bone Marrow- create leukocytes
• Thymus- produce mature T-lymphocytes
• Spleen- hub of immune system
– As blood passes, hordes of leukocytes attack and
destroy all foreigners
• Lymph node- filters lymph
– Contains lymphocytes and macrophages
How body recognizes pathogens
• We have an astronomical number of
antibodies that will bind to any of a number of
antigens (foreign things that the system is
trained to destroy)
• Antibodies can bind to these foreign
molecular structures, marking them for
destruction by leukocytes, or even neutralizing
them themselves through agglutination or
other processes
Innate Immunity
• Genetically based, from birth
• Genes coding for antibodies inherited, not
developed
• Example- immune response against different
blood type
Acquired Immunity
• Immune system changed, honed, and
developed over lifetime
• Cell-mediated- Macrophages’ displayed
antigens give T-lymphocytes new targets
• Humoral- Consists of antibodies and the Blymphocytes that create more, newer versions
of them
Active vs. Passive Immunity
• Active- giving antigens to body so it produces
the antibodies necessary
– Results are usually lifelong
• Passive- giving antibodies directly to combat
infections
– Results are fast but short-lived
B vs. T Lymphocytes
• B- produce antibodies, which form the basis of
the entire immune system
– Activated especially by encountering new antigens,
but work nonstop nonetheless
• T- Two types
– One creates factors that command the rest of the
immune system
– The other directly attacks tumor cells, virally infected
cells, etc.
– Activated by infection and secondary lymphoid
organs, but also work nonstop
Antibiotics
• Antibiotics are defined as substances that
destroy or inhibit bacteria
– So obviously, by definition, they wouldn’t be
effective against viruses
• We have not discovered substances that
destroy viruses, we can only either inhibit
them or help our immune system destroy
them
HIV
• Human Immunodeficiency Virus attacks Tlymphocytes and monocytes, weakening the
immune system
• Symptoms- increased illness
• Prevalence- 0.6% of US population has it
• Treatment- drugs
Mononucleosis
• Caused by Epstein-Barr Virus
– Immunodeficiency disease
– Also attacks T-lymphocytes and monocytes
• Symptoms- increased illness
• Prevalence- 95% of adults in U.S. had it at
some point
• Treatment- very little, corticosteroids, NSAIDs
Sources
• http://www.thebody.com/content/art1788.html
• http://uhaweb.hartford.edu/bugl/immune.htm
• http://occmed.oxfordjournals.org/content/57/8/
552.full
• http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.DYN.AID
S.ZS
• http://www.mdguidelines.com/mononucleosis
• Professor Chad Caldwell’s Human Anatomy
Notetaking Guide
Excretory System
Nephron
Types of Nitrogenous Waste
• Ammonia- most toxic (most water to dilute), but least
energy to form
– Aquatic animals- they have plenty of water and want to
save energy
• Urea- less toxic (less water to dilute), but more energy
to form
– Mammals and mature amphibians- they want to conserve
water and energy well
• Uric Acid- least toxic (least water to dilute), but more
energy to form
– Insects, birds, reptiles- they have a limited supply of water
Excretory processes
• Filtration- the filtration of water and dissolved
substances by the glomerulus into the
Bowman’s capsule
– Filters just about everything except large proteins
• Reabsorption- the reabsorption of some of the
filtrate back into the bloodstream
– Happens from the proximal tubules through the
collecting tubules
– Water, glucose, electrolytes, other essentials
Excretory Processes
• Secretion- secretion of materials from blood
back into the distal convoluted tubule
– Ammonium, hydrogen, other toxic substances
• Excretion- the riddance of urine through the
collecting ducts to the ureters, and finally to
the urinary bladder
Kidney Stones
• Synthesis of Calcium oxalate, Calcium
phosphate, uric acid, or Magnesium
phosphate in renal pelvis, passed through
ureters
• Symptoms- passing of kidney stone
• Prevalence- half million people annually
• Treatment- let it pass, or surgery, or
shockwave therapy
Gout
• Accumulation of uric acid crystals in joints
• Symptoms- Noticeable bump on affected joint,
possible immobility
• Prevalence- Affects 8.3 million Americans
• Treatment- drugs and avoidance of foods high
in uric acid
Sources
• http://faculty.clintoncc.suny.edu/faculty/michael.grego
ry/files/bio%20102/bio%20102%20lectures/excretory
%20system/excretor.htm
• http://kidney.niddk.nih.gov/kudiseases/pubs/stonesad
ults/
• http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/07/11072
8082551.htm
• Professor Chad Caldwell’s
Human Anatomy Notetaking
Guide
Endocrine System
Function
• To regulate a vast variety of slow bodily
processes such as growth, metabolism, and
reproduction
Homeostasis
• A state of stability and equilibrium within the
body
• Endocrine glands regulate metabolism and
other parts of organs to maintain homeostasis
– Done through hormones
Negative Feedback System
• Most common mechanism to maintain
homeostasis
• When regulated part of body changes from its
ideal condition, endocrine gland takes action to
bring it back to normal
• Like a thermostat based heating unit
• Ex. Parathyroid gland and blood calcium level
regulation
– When blood Ca gets too low, more hormone is
secreted to increase it
Type I vs. Type II Diabetes
• Type I- Pancreas does not produce enough
insulin
– Due to early autoimmune response destroying
insulin-secreting cells
• Type II- Body makes insulin, but cells do not
respond to it, do not take in blood glucose
Addison’s Disease
• Adrenal glands produce too few steroid
hormones
• Symptoms- fatigue, weakness, muscle pain,
gastrointestinal problems, craving or salt,
darkened skin, low blood pressure
• Prevalence- 150/1 million people
• Treatment- artificial replacement of hormones
Sources
• http://www.pennmedicine.org/health_info/b
ody_guide/reftext/html/endo_sys_fin.html
• http://www.hormone.org/endocrine_system_
diseases.cfm
• Professor Chad Caldwell’s Human Anatomy
Notetaking Guide
Reproductive System
Function
• To allow the organism to reproduce and
further the species
Sexual vs. Asexual
• Sexual- Combines genes of two organisms,
father and mother
– Greater genetic diversity, but slower rate of
reproduction
• Asexual- Exact copy of one parent’s genes
– No genetic diversity through reproduction
– But, faster rate of reproduction
Examples of Asexual Reproduction
• Budding- sponges, hydras
– Offspring grows with, then branches out of
parent’s body
• Fragmentation- Planarians
– Parent cut in half, each half grows into two
individuals
• Regeneration- Echinoderms
– Part of parent breaks off, becomes entirely new
individual
Spermatogenesis
• In testes
• Classic meiosis, with final cells changing shape
to sperm structure
• Quantity not quality
Oogenesis
• In ovary
• Classic meiosis, but with a twist
– Results in one giant egg cell, which has stolen
most of the cytoplasm of the other three products
of meiosis, which are now called polar bodies
– This one ovum has a bulk of nutrients to keep it
alive until fertilization and embryo development
• Quality not quantity
Menstrual vs. Estrous Cycles
• Menstrual- humans and most apes
– Dispose of unused endometrium by menstruation
– No signs of ovulation
• Estrous- most mammals
– Recycle unused endometrium
– Females only sexually active during or slightly
before ovulation
• “in heat”
Menstrual Cycle- 28 day cycle
• Day 1- low concentrations of estrogen and
progesterone allow pituitary to be uninhibited,
increasing release of follicle stimulating hormone and
luteinizing hormone
• Day 3- increased release of FSH allows follicle to
develop
• Day 7- increased estrogen levels (due to follicle)
stimulate proliferative phase in uterus, endometrium
thickens
• Day 12- hypothalamus stimulates pituitary to release
LH, causing the follicle to rupture, triggering ovulation
Menstrual Cycle- 28 day cycle
• Day 15- increased progesterone and estrogen levels
released by corpus luteum after ovulation stimulate
secretory phse in uterus, and inhibit secretion of FSH
and LH by pituitary gland
• Day 24- fertilization must take place between days 1214, if not, corpus luteum degenerates at this time
• Day 28- degeneration of corpus luteum causes
decreases in estrogen and progesterone, leading to
blood vessel constriction in endometrium
• Day 1- low blood supply to endometrium cause tissue
to die and slough away, forming menses
Embryonic Development
• Zygote undergoes cleavage to form morula, which
develops into blastula
• Cells in blastula move inward over a blastopore to
create digestive system, creating a gastrula
– Gastrulation
– Germ layers are formed
• Organogenesis- when organs are finally distinctly
forming
– Not embryo anymore, now it’s a fetus
Germ Layers
• Layer/collection of cells that is the first step of
differentiation of an embryo
• Endoderm- will form digestive and respiratory
organs
• Mesoderm- will form muscle, skeletal,
circulatory, excretory, and reproductive organs
• Ectoderm- Will form epidermis and nervous
system
Syphilis
• Infection of genitals by Treponemapallidum
bacteria
• STD
• Symptoms- sores on genitals
• Prevalence- 107,000 new cases in 1999
• Treatment- antibiotics
Genital Herpes
•
•
•
•
Caused by Herpes Simplex II Virus
STD
Prevalence- 16.2% in U.S.
Treatment- Acyclovir shortens lytic phase of
virus
Sources
• http://biology.about.com/od/genetics/ss/Asex
ual-Rep
• http://www.womenshealth.gov/publications/
our-publications/factsheet/menstruation.cfmroduction.htm
• http://beef.unl.edu/learning/estrous.shtml
• http://www.avert.org/std-statistics.htm
Nervous System
• Function- To send signals from one part of the
body to another
– To control the body
Central vs. Peripheral
• Central Nervous System- Brain and spinal cord
– To analyze and make commands
• Peripheral Nervous System- The nerves that
branch out from the brain and spinal cord to
effectors and receptors
– Mostly to sense something and then later carry
the signal for action
Major Parts of Brain
• Right cerebral hemisphere
– Approximate calculations, themes, ideas, concepts
• Left cerebral hemisphere
– Exact calculations, grammar, details
• Diencephalon- Area in the middle of brain, above
brain stem
– Thalamus- relays sensory and motor impulses
– Hypothalamus- controls endocrine system
– Limbic System- Old Mammalian Brain
• emotions
Major Parts of Brain
• Brain Stem- connects cerebrum to spinal cord
– Midbrain- visual and auditory tracking reflex
– Pons- relay station for many intra-brain impulses
– Medulla Oblongata- control center for vital functions
(heart rate, breathing, etc.)
– Reticular Formation- wakefullness vs. sleepiness
• Also filters 99% of sensory input as unimportant
• Cerebellum- behind/under cerebrum
– Integrates sensory info. on body position and
coordinates body movements
Nerve Impulse in Neuron
1. When the neuron is at rest, there is a membrane
potential with a positive charge on the outside and a
negative on the inside
-
Na+ on the outside, K+ on the inside
2. Resting potential
-
Resting, polarized neuron
3. Action potential
-
Stimulus reaches dendrites
Na+ ion channels open, let Na+ inside neuron
4. Neuron is depolarized
- Only after stimulus reaches threshold level, causing all Na+
ion channels to open
Nerve Impulse in Neuron
5. K+ leaves neuron
-
Entrance of Na+ in neuron causes exit of K+ through
newly opened K+ ion channels
6. Hyperpolarization
-
K+ now on outside, Na+ on inside
All ion channels close
Lower membrane potential than at rest
7. Refractory Period
- Returns everything to normal, Na+ outside, K+ inside
Neurotransmitters
• At the end of an axon, a neurotransmitter is
released from the neuron, after Calcium ions
rush in, to cross the synapse and stimulate the
impulse to the dendrite of the next neuron
• Neurotransmitter binds to membrane protein,
continuing the sequence to the next neuron
Insomnia
• Psychological disturbance releases too much
norepinephrine into reticular formation
• Symptoms- problems sleeping
• Prevalence- unknown, but surveys show that
about half of all adults display symptoms at
times
• Treatment- eliminating the psychological
cause
Epilepsy
• Neuron membrane too permeable to Na+
– Overproduction of norepinephrine
• Symptoms- seizures
• Prevalence- 26 per 100,000 people
• Treatment- avoid seizure inducers
Sources
• http://www.pennmedicine.org/health_info/body_guide/reftext/ht
ml/nerv_sys_fin.html
• http://www.dummies.com/how-to/content/understanding-thetransmission-of-nerve-impulses.html
• http://www.emedicinehealth.com/insomnia/page7_em.htm#Insom
nia Treatment
• http://www.epilepsy.com/epilepsy/epilepsy_lgs/prevalence
• Professor Chad Caldwell’s
Human Anatomy
Notetaking Guide
Senses
Types of Sensory Receptors
• Mechanoreceptors- Changes in pressure or
position
– Touch and hearing, entire body
• Thermoreceptors- Heat
– Touch, entire body
• Chemoreceptors- ions or molecules
– Taste and smell, mouth and nose
Types of Sensory Receptors
• Photoreceptors- changes in light
– Sight, eyes
• Pain receptors- severe conditions caused by
inflamed tissue
– Everywhere
Rhodopsin
• Pigment found in rods
• This protein is the absorber of light
– Shuts Na+ gates in surrounding neurons,
polarizing them
• Begins pathway of nerve impulses that
indicate the presence of light
Sources
• http://faculty.clintoncc.suny.edu/faculty/mich
ael.gregory/files/bio%20102/bio%20102%20le
ctures/sensory%20systems/sensory.htm
Muscular System
Types of Muscle Tissue
• Cardiac- Striated, involuntary control
– In heart
• Skeletal- Striated, voluntary control
– Around bones (usually)
• Smooth- Spindle shaped, involuntary control
– Walls of organs
Skeletal Muscle Contraction
• Acetylcholine is sent from a nerve cell to the
receptor on the muscle cell membrane
• Acetylcholine causes Calcium to be released
from sarcoplasmic reticulum, which stores it
• Calcium bonds with troponin, causing
tropomyosin to leave the actin
• Myosin filaments attach to actin, making the
cross-bridge
Skeletal Muscle Contraction
• Energy from ATP lets myosin pull actin
filaments, contracting the cell
• Energy from ATP again breaks cross-bridge,
relaxing the muscle cell
Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy
• Recessive allele codes for absence of muscle
protein dystrophin
– Muscle cells burst upon contraction
• Symptoms- abnormally low muscle mass
• Prevalence- 1/6000 people get it each year
• Treatment- Supportive treatments,
physiotherapy, nothing much because it is
genetic
Botulism
• Bacteria produce botulin, acetylcholine
inhibitor
• Symptoms- Flaccid paralysis, death by
respiratory failure
• Prevalence- 98 annual cases
• Treatment- antibiotics, hyperbaric chamber
therapy
Sources
• http://www.teachpe.com/anatomy/sliding_filament.ph
p
• http://www.rightdiagnosis.com/d/duchennemd/preval
ence.htm
• http://www.annals.org/content/129/3/221.abstract
• Professor Chad Caldwell’s
Human Anatomy
Notetaking Guide
Skeletal System
Functions
•
•
•
•
Support
Protection
Movement
Storage of different minerals
– Mainly calcium
• Blood cell production
Roles of… in movement
• Bones- To be the levers and raw support of
movement
• Ligaments- to anchor bones together and
move fluidly
• Muscles- The actual power and moving force
that drives the movement
• Tendons- To connect muscles with bones and
rope in the bones during movement
Types of Skeletons
• Hydrostatic- fluid filled coelom provides fluid
structure but still adequate support
– Jellyfish, sea anemones
• Exoskeleton- Hard, rigid skeleton covering the
outside of soft body parts
– Insects, shrimp
• Endoskeleton- Support and structure formed
within body tissues and skin
– Humans, birds
Osteoporosis
• Porous bones due to either lack of Calcium or
lack of Vitamin D to absorb Calcium
• Symptoms- Weakened or bending bones,
hunched posture, easy fractures
• Prevalence- projected 52 million people over
age 50
• Treatment- Calcium, female hormone
replacement, some drugs
Osteoarthritis
• Inflammation of joint due to wearing down of
articular cartilage
• Symptoms- pain and swelling in joints
• Prevalence- 13.9% of adults age 25+
• Treatment- relieving symptoms, physical
therapy
Sources
• http://www.nof.org/advocacy/resources/prev
alencereport
• http://www.cdc.gov/arthritis/basics/osteoarth
ritis.htm
• Professor Chad Caldwell’s Human Anatomy
Notetaking Guide