Non-Human Primates
& Research
Primate Family Tree
•Arm length
•Tool use
•Posture
Spread of population
Humans and non-human primates are genetically
similar
however
the main difference
is how and
What
adaptations
make humans
WHEN genes are expressed!
different from primates?
How feet are used
Hip & leg structure
The cranium protects the large brain, a distinguishing characteristic of this group. The
endocranial volume (the volume within the skull) is three times greater in humans
than in the greatest non-human primate, reflecting a larger brain size.
Primate: an animal belonging to the highest
order of mammals
Humans and nonhumans (apes, monkeys, lemurs, tree-shrews, lorises, aye-ayes, pottos,
bush babies and tarsiers) make up the 376 species of primates in the world.
They are characterized by being:
–Plantigrade -walking on the sole with the heel touching the ground
–Pentadactyl -having five digits on each hand or foot
by having:
–clavicles
– varied dental pattern (some primates have more/less teeth than others & different
types of teeth)
– a voluminous and complicated brain
–Opposable thumb
They have excellent sight and are highly adapted to an arboreal existence, including the
possession by some of a prehensile tail.
Saunders Comprehensive Veterinary Dictionary, 3 ed. © 2007 Elsevier, Inc. All rights reserved
Primates as
research models
Advantages
– humankind’s closest biological relatives
– we share 98.4% of our DNA with chimpanzees
– characteristics in common -- tool use, long-lasting
social relationships, and complex communication
– same organs (heart, lungs, brain etc.) and organ
systems (respiratory, cardiovascular,
nervous systems etc.) which perform the same
functions in pretty much the same way
Disadvantages
– expensive to purchase and maintain
– reproductive rate is low (typically one
offspring per reproductive cycle) and the
developmental period of the young is long
– special handling and management
requirements, based on the temperament and
potentially lethal zoonoses of primates
– ethical issues on the primates, especially
chimpanzees, have limited their use
– there is no perfect animal model regardless of
how similar it is to humans
Did You Know...
• Nonhuman primates
represent only about
one third of one
percent of animals
used in biomedical
research.
Special Considerations:
• Federal laws, the Animal Welfare Act and the Public
Health Service Act, regulate the reduction and
elimination of pain, as well as such aspects of
animal care as caging, feeding, exercise of dogs and
the psychological well-being of primates
• Each research institution must establish an animal
care and use committee that includes an outside
member of the public as well as a veterinarian
The scientific community advocates the highest
quality of animal care and treatment for two key
reasons.
1.The use of animals in research is a privilege.
• Animals are helping us unlock the mysteries of disease.
They deserve our respect and the best possible care.
2.A well-treated animal will provide more reliable
scientific results.
• This is the goal of all researchers.
Did You Know...
• Because gorillas and humans are so
closely related, most diseases can
be transmitted from humans to
gorillas and vice versa. This is the
reason for the glass enclosures at
the National Zoo's Great Ape House.
The glass prevents any exchange of
disease between visitors and
gorillas.
• In addition, infant gorillas receive
the same inoculations as human
babies. They also receive tetanus,
and rabies inoculations throughout
their lives.
WHAT HAS BEEN ACHIEVED WITH
RESEARCH ON PRIMATES?
Detailed Time Line
or
General Achievements
Major Medical Advances Aided by
Research with Nonhuman Primates
• Early 1900s
Components of blood and plasma discovered.
Treatment of pellagra.
• 1920s
Ability to diagnose and treat typhoid fever.
• 1930s
Modern anesthesia and neuromuscular
blocking agents.
Mumps virus discovered.
• 1940s
-Treatment of rheumatoid arthritis.
-Discovery of the Rh factor, blood-typing knowledge critical
for safe blood transfusions.
• 1950s
-Development of polio vaccine.
-Chlorpromazine and its tranquilizing derivatives.
-Cancer chemotherapy.
-Development of yellow fever vaccine.
• 1960s
-Mapping of the heart's connections
to arteries.
-Development of German measles vaccine.
-Therapeutic use of cortisone.
-Corneal transplants.
• 1970s
-Treatment of leprosy.
-Procedures to restore blood supply in the brain.
-Interaction between tumor viruses and genetic material.
-Understanding of slow viruses, which linger in the nervous
system.
-Discovery that alcohol is toxic to the liver.
• 1980s
-Development of cyclosporine and anti-rejection drugs.
-Processing of visual information by the brain.
-Identification of psychophysiological co-factors in depression,
anxiety and phobias.
-Treatment of malnutrition caused by food aversion following
chemotherapy.
-Treatment of congenital cataracts and "lazy eye" in children.
-First animal model for research on Parkinson's disease,
enabling doctors to more accurately research human
Parkinson's disease.
-Heart and lung transplant to treat cardiopulmonary
hypertension.
-First Hepatitis B vaccine.
-Rhesus monkey model for AIDS used to establish the
effectiveness of early administration of AZT in cases of
diagnosed infection.
-Addition of taurine to infant formulas. An amino acid
in breast milk, taurine is necessary for normal retinal
development.
• 1990s
-Estrogen discovered to control an enzyme key to
making serotonin, the brain chemical that regulates mood.
-Lead toxicity studies help U.S. fight childhood lead
exposure.
-Ongoing development of a one-dose transplant drug to
prevent organ rejection.
-First controlled study to reveal that even moderate levels of
alcohol are dangerous in pregnancy.
-Breakthroughs in understanding the mechanisms of puberty
and disorders of puberty.
-Primate embryonic stem cells studied extensively for the first
time, advancing efforts to better understand reproduction
and genetic disorders.
-The drug Ecstasy causes long-term brain damage long after
the high has worn off.
-Parent to child lung transplants for cystic
fibrosis.
-Monkey model developed for curing
diabetes.
-Naturally regenerative mechanism discovered in the mature primate
brain, spurring new research toward curing Alzheimer's, other
degenerative brain disorders.
-Wild primate species help characterize emerging infectious diseases.
-Rhesus and cynomolgus monkey kidneys developed for use in
diagnosing influenza.
-Development of anthrax vaccine
• 2000s
-Gene that boosts dopamine production and strengthens brain cells
used to successfully treat monkeys showing symptoms of
Parkinson's Disease, a neurodegenerative disorder.
-Monkey model developed to study the effects of malaria in
pregnant women and their offspring.
-Rhesus monkeys are now prime model for development
of HIV treatments and potential vaccines. There are 14
licensed anti-viral drugs for treatment of human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection alone.
-Human embryonic stem cell work based on research in
monkeys makes dramatic advances.
Return to
Presentation
(Sources: United States Surgical Corps, Centers for Disease Control, San Francisco Bee, Massachusetts Society for Medical
Research, Inc., Ross Labs, National Center for Research Resources National Primate Research Centers Program, National
Institutes of Health, National Institute on Drug Abuse, Children with Diabetes, Time Magazine, Seattle Post-Intelligencer,
Associated Press, PubMed.)
Many significant advances in modern
medicine have been based on research
involving primates, including the following:
• polio vaccines, which have virtually eliminated the disease in
the USA and Europe since the 1950s
• life-support systems for premature babies
• kidney dialysis
• anti-rejection drugs for organ transplant recipients
• deep brain stimulation to suppress the symptoms of
Parkinson’s disease
• surgical treatment for macular degeneration –an incurable eye
disease that is the primary cause of blindness in older people
• new techniques in stroke rehabilitation therapy
• drugs to combat asthma
• cancer chemotherapy
• primate embryonic stem cells studied extensively, advancing
efforts to better understand reproduction and genetic
disorders
• dietary restriction without malnutrition provides major health
benefits and may extend maximum lifespan
• Rhesus monkeys are now prime model for development of HIV
treatments and potential vaccines. There are 14 licensed antiviral drugs for treatment of human immunodeficiency virus
(HIV) infection alone
Environment
Natural habitat vs. Laboratory
Natural Habitat
• tropical or subtropical regions of the Americas, Africa and
Asia
• most non-human primates do not shape their environment,
they use it as it is without modification
• Forage, or search for, food and water
• the majority of primate species are primarily or exclusively
vegetarian
• some non-human primates use very simple tools
to help in acquiring food and water
• live in groups which have a constant close
association of young and old through a long life
duration
Laboratory Habitat
•Attempt to create conditions that allow nonhuman primates
to behave as they would in their natural habitat.
•Well cared for research animals = better science
•Scientists use Environmental Enrichment and Behavior
Management to ensure to the well-being of the nonhuman
primates
•There are strict laws and policies that scientist must follow
Environmental Enrichment for Nonhuman Primates Resource
Guide
You can view a movie of a rhesus macaque at the Southwest
National Primate Research Center.
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Swings
Toys
Mirrors
Perches
Group or pair housing
Positive reinforcement training
Careers in Primatology
Primatologists can be:
– university professors
– biomedical researchers
– zookeepers
– veterinarians
– newsletter editors
– conservationists
They can work in:
– conservation agencies
– primate centers or
laboratories
– corporate or institutional
positions
– government organizations
– educational programs
– sanctuaries
– zoological gardens
– museums