Slide 1
A Topical Approach to
LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT
Chapter Twelve:
Gender and Sexuality
John W. Santrock
© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
1
Slide 2
Biological, Social, and Cognitive
Influences on Gender
• Biological Influences
– Gender: characteristics of being female or male
– Gender role: set of expectations prescribing how
females and males should act, feel, and think
– Gender typing: process by which children acquire
thoughts, behaviors, and feelings culturally
appropriate for their gender
– Sex: designates the biological aspects of being
female or male
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Slide 3
Biological, Social, and Cognitive
Influences on Gender
• Biological Influences
– Chromosomes: 23rd pair with X and Y
– Hormones
• Estrogens
– Influences development of female physical sex
characteristics and helps regulate menstrual cycle
• Androgens
– Testosterone promotes development of male
genitals and secondary sex characteristics
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Slide 4
Biological, Social, and Cognitive
Influences on Gender
• Biological Influences
– Examples of conditions from unusual levels of sex
hormones early in development
•
•
•
•
Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH)
Androgen-insensitive males
Pelvic field defect
Failed sex reassignment
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Slide 5
Biological, Social, and Cognitive
Influences on Gender
• Evolutionary psychology view
– Differing roles in reproduction placed different
pressures on males and females
– Key gender differences in sexual attitudes and
sexual behaviors
• Males — competition, violence, risk-taking
• Females — parenting effort, selection of successful mate
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Slide 6
Biological, Social, and Cognitive
Influences on Gender
• Social influences
– Differences due to social experiences
• Social role theory: gender differences result from
contrasting roles of men and women
• Psychoanalytic theory of gender: claims child
identifies with same-sex parent by age 5 or 6
• Many disagree, claiming gender learned much earlier
(even in absence of same-sex parent)
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Slide 7
Biological, Social, and Cognitive
Influences on Gender
• Social influences
– Differences due to social experiences
• Social cognitive theory of gender — gender
development results from observation and imitation, use
of rewards and punishments for gender-appropriate
behaviors
– Mothers’ socialization strategies
– Fathers’ socialization strategies
– Exposure to media, peers, other adults in culture
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Slide 8
Biological, Social, and Cognitive
Influences on Gender
• Cognitive influences
– Gender schema theory
• Gender typing emerges gradually in gender schemas of
what is culturally gender-appropriate and inappropriate
• Gender-typed behavior can occur before children
develop gender constancy
• Schema: cognitive structure
• Gender schema: organizes world in terms of female and
male
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Slide 9
Cognitive Influences
• Gender schema theory
– Gender typing emerges gradually in gender
schemas of what is culturally gender-appropriate
and inappropriate
– Gender-typed behavior can occur before children
develop gender constancy
– Schema: cognitive structure
– Gender schema: organizes world in terms of
male and female
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Slide 10
Gender Stereotyping,
Similarities, and Differences
• Gender stereotyping
– General impressions and beliefs about females
and males
– Traditional masculinity and femininity
• Males — instrumental traits
• Females — expressive traits
• Roles and traits — unequal social status, power
– Developmentally
• Gender stereotyping present in 2-year-olds
• Stereotyping varies with culture
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Slide 11
Young Children’s Judgments about
Competency in Stereotyped Occupations
Fig. 12.2
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Slide 12
Gender Stereotyping,
Similarities, and Differences
• Gender similarities and differences
– Physical differences
• Females
– have longer life expectancy
– less likely to develop mental or physical disorders
– Resistant to infections, more elastic blood vessels
• Males have higher levels of stress hormones causing
faster clotting and higher blood pressure
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Slide 13
Gender Stereotyping,
Similarities, and Differences
• Gender similarities and differences
– Physical differences
• Female brains are smaller, have more folds
• Part of hypothalamus involved in sexual behavior is
larger in men
• Area of parietal lobe functioning in visuospatial skills is
larger in males
• Areas of brain involved in emotional expression show
more activity in females
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Slide 14
Gender Stereotyping,
Similarities, and Differences
• Cognitive similarities and differences
– Some claim males better at math and visuospatial
skills and females better at verbal skills
– Others claim no differences or exaggerated
– National standardized tests
• Boys slightly better at math and science
• Girls better at reading and writing
• Overall, girls superior students to boys
– More males placed in special/remedial classes
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Slide 15
Visuospatial Skills of Males and Females
Fig. 12.3
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Slide 16
Gender Stereotyping,
Similarities, and Differences
• Socioemotional similarities and differences
– Aggression
• Males more physically aggressive in all cultures
• Females may be verbally aggressive; use relational
aggression more than men
– Self-Regulation
• Males show less self-regulation, can lead to behavioral
problems
– Controversies over psychological differences
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Slide 17
Gender Stereotyping,
Similarities, and Differences
• Socioemotional similarities and differences
– Meta-analysis
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•
•
Gender differences: small to nonexistent
Physical aggression differences were moderate
Largest difference in motor skills favoring males
Males more sexually active than females
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Slide 18
Gender Stereotyping,
Similarities, and Differences
• Socioemotional similarities and differences
– Gender in context
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•
•
•
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Gender varies across contexts
Males more likely to help in perceived danger
Females more likely to volunteer to help with child
Girls show more care-giving behaviors than boys
Males more likely to show anger towards strangers and
turn anger into aggression
• Cultural backgrounds influence socialization
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Slide 19
Gender Development
Through the Life Span
• Childhood
– Children form many ideas about what the sexes
are like from about 1½ to 3 years of age
– Boys receive earlier and more intense gender
socialization (e.g., “boy code”)
• Boys could benefit from more socialization to express
emotions and better regulation of aggression
– Children show clear preference for same-sex
peers
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Slide 20
Gender Development
Through the Life Span
• Adolescence
– Transition point; changes in puberty
– Gender-intensification hypothesis
• Psychological and behavioral differences between boys
and girls become greater during early adolescence
• Psychological and behavioral differences between boys
and girls become greater during early adolescence
• Mixed messages and special problems
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Slide 21
Gender Development
Through the Life Span
• Adulthood and aging
– Gender and communication
• Rapport talk
– Language of conversation, a way to establish
connections and negotiate relationships
– Preferred by women
• Report talk
– Language designed to give information, including
public speaking
– Preferred by men
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Slide 22
Gender Development
Through the Life Span
• Adulthood and aging
– Women’s gender development
• Women often try to actively participate in others’
development
– Emotionally
– Intellectually
– Socially
• Women maintain competency, self-motivation, and selfdetermination in relationships
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Slide 23
Gender Development
Through the Life Span
• Adulthood and aging
– Men’s gender development
• Male roles are contradictory and inconsistent
– Can cause role-strain in
» Health (may be considered: hazardous)
» Male-female relationships (affected by traditions)
» Male-male relationships (fathers have impact)
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Slide 24
Gender Development
Through the Life Span
• Gender and aging
– Decreased masculinity in most men; decreased
femininity may occur in some women
• Impacted by cohort effects
– Older women face double jeopardy of ageism and
sexism
– Older ethnic minority women face triple jeopardy:
ageism, sexism, racism
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Slide 25
Exploring Sexuality
• Biological and cultural factors
– Biological
• Sexual behavior is influenced by sex hormones
• Sexual behavior is so individualized in humans that it is
difficult to specify hormonal effects
– Sexual motivation also influenced by cultural
factors
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Slide 26
Exploring Sexuality
• Biological and cultural factors
– Cultural factors
• Range of sexual values across cultures is substantial
– Ines Beag: small island off coast of Ireland
» Extreme sexually repressive conditions
– Mangaian culture in South Pacific
» Sexual behavior encouraged very open
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Slide 27
Exploring Sexuality
• Biological and cultural factors
– Cultural factors
• Sexual scripts — stereotyped expectancy patterns for
how people should behave sexually
– Traditional religious script — sex is accepted only
within marriage; sex is for reproduction and
sometimes affection
– Romantic script — sex synonymous with love
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Slide 28
Sex in America Survey
Noncohabiting
Men
Cohabiting (married)
Men
1%
Never
A few times
a year
Women
Women
3%
A few times
a month
2 to 3 times
a week
4 or more
times a
week
Fig. 12.4
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Slide 29
Exploring Sexuality
• Sexual orientation
– Heterosexual attitudes and behavior
•
•
•
•
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Different categories for frequency of sex
Married couples have sex more often
Most couples enjoy traditional sex
Adultery is exception, not the rule
Men think about sex more than women
Most lead conservative sexual lives
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Slide 30
Exploring Sexuality
• Sexual orientation
– Attitudes and behaviors of lesbians and gay males
• Bisexual: sexually attracted to both sexes
• Research on biological and hormonal differences on
sexual preferences unclear
• Anatomically — area of hypothalamus governing sexual
behavior 2x larger in heterosexual males
– Sexual orientation: most likely results from mix of
genetic, hormonal, cognitive, environmental
factors
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Slide 31
Exploring Sexuality
• Sexual orientation
– Attitudes and behaviors of lesbians and gay males
• Gender differences appearing in heterosexual
relationships also occurs in homosexual relationships
– Importance of trust, affection, sharing of friends
– Sexual attraction more important to men
– Lesbians have fewer partners, have sex less often
– More equal in labor and power than traditional couple
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Slide 32
Exploring Sexuality
• Sexual orientation
– Attitudes and behaviors of lesbians and gay males
• Gay and lesbians experience life as minorities in
dominant culture, with bicultural identity
• Special concern:
– Hate crimes
– Stigma-related experiences; verbal harassment
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Slide 33
Exploring Sexuality
• Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)
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–
–
–
–
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Gonorrhea
Syphilis
Chlamydia
Genital Herpes
HPV — causes genital warts
HIV and AIDS — sexually-transmitted disease
caused by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
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Slide 34
Exploring Sexuality
• Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)
– AIDS has impact worldwide
• Sub-Saharan Africa has epidemic proportions
– Little use of condoms
– High infection rate for adolescents
– Orphans left with o caregivers
» 12 million orphans in 2006
• In United States — prevention targeted at specific groups
– Drug users, STD infected persons, young gay males
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Slide 35
Exploring Sexuality
• Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)
– Protecting against STIs
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•
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Education and development of effective drug treatments
Only safe behavior is abstinence
Know your and your partner’s risk status
Obtain screening tests for STIs
Have protected, not unprotected, sex
Don’t have sex with multiple partners
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Slide 36
Exploring Sexuality
• Forcible Sexual Behavior
– Rape
• Forcible sexual intercourse without consent; legal
definitions vary by state
• Victims reluctant to report rape; stats vary
– Date or acquaintance rape: coercive sex activity
with acquaintance; concern for college students
– Rape of male victims is rare, does occur
• Constitutes almost 5% of all rapes
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Slide 37
Rape Victim-Offender Relationships
50
Percentage of sample
40
30
20
10
0
Classmate
Friend
Boyfriend/ Acquaintance
ex-boyfriend
Other
Offender
Fig. 12.5
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Slide 38
Exploring Sexuality
• Sexual Harassment
– Ranging from remarks to physical contact, blatant
propositions to sexual assaults
– Most victims are women in educational and
workplace settings
– Has serious psychological effects on victim
– One person’s manifestation of power over another
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Slide 39
Sexuality through the Life Span
• Child sexuality
– Majority of children engage in some sex play
•
•
•
•
Usually with friends or siblings
Exhibiting or inspecting the genitals
Most motivated by curiosity
Sex play declines, but sexual interest remains high in
elementary school years
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Slide 40
Sexuality through the Life Span
• Sexuality in adolescence
– Time of sexual exploration, experimentation,
fantasies, and incorporating sexuality into one’s
identity
– Most have insatiable curiosity about sex
– Majority develop mature sexual identity; most
have times of vulnerability and confusion
– Societies vary in response to adolescent sexuality
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Slide 41
Sexuality through the Life Span
• Sexuality in adolescence
– Developing a Sexual Identity
• Multifaceted, lengthy challenge to manage new feelings,
develop identity and self-regulation
• Great variety in orientations, interest levels, anxiety
levels, activity, and reasons for choices in activity
• Gay or lesbian identity: gradual coming-out
• Homosexual behavior in adolescence may not continue
into adulthood
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Slide 42
Sexuality through the Life Span
• Sexuality in adolescence
– Timing and frequency of sexual behaviors
• First initiation experience varies by country, culture
• Cross-culturally: majority of females and males have first
experience by age 17
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Slide 43
Sexuality through the Life Span
• Sexuality in adolescence
– Timing and frequency of sexual behaviors
• U.S. study:
– African American and inner-city youth most active
– Asian American youth most restricted
– Males more active than females
– Casual oral sex is common, increasing; believed to
be safer and not really “having sex”
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Slide 44
Sexuality through the Life Span
• Sexuality in adolescence
– Personal risk factors
• Emotionally unprepared for sexual experiences
• Other risky behaviors linked to early sexual activity
– Drug use, delinquency, school-related problems
– Risky behavior patterns can continue as disorders in
emerging adulthood
• Contextual factors
– SES, parenting styles, peer factors
– Having sibling engaging in early activity
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Slide 45
Sexuality through the Life Span
• Sexuality in adolescence
– Cognitive factors are linked to sexual risk taking
– Contraceptive use can reduce risks; increased use
of contraceptives by adolescents
• Age affects choice and consistency of use
– 3 million U.S. adolescents acquire STIs annually
– U.S. adolescent pregnancy rates decreasing; but
one of highest rates in developed world
• Negative consequences for teen mother and child
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Slide 46
Cross-Cultural Comparisons of Pregnancy
80
60
40
20
0
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
Year
Fig. 12.7
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Slide 47
Sexuality through the Life Span
• Consequences of Adolescent Pregnancy
– Health risks for mother and child
• Low birth rate in newborns linked to infant mortality,
neurological problems, childhood illness
– Young mothers more likely to
•
•
•
•
Drop out of school; were low achievers in school
Have history of conduct problems
Come from low-income backgrounds
Live in poverty
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Slide 48
Sexuality through the Life Span
• Emerging adulthood
– Patterns of heterosexual behavior
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•
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•
•
Time frame for sexual activity and singlehood
Males have more casual sex; females more selective
Most limit sex partners to one or two persons annually
Casual sex more common in “hooking up”
The earlier the age of first sex, the more sexual activity in
emerging adulthood
• Religious adults have fewer sexual partners
• Alcohol use loosens inhibitions, decreases caution
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Slide 49
Sexuality through the Life Span
• Sexuality and aging
– Middle adulthood
• Climacteric: midlife transition, fertility ends/declines
• Women: Menopause late forties or early fifties;
– Perimenopausal is transitional time
– Hormone replacement therapy (HRT): risks involved
• Men: less testosterone, less desire, possible erectile
dysfunction (Viagra and similar drugs have appeared)
• Ability to function slows little, frequency drops in old age
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Slide 50
Sexuality through the Life Span
• Sexuality and aging
– Late adulthood
• Aging does have some effects on sexual performance
• Men experience more changes than women
– Orgasm less frequent
– More direct stimulation needed
– Erection problems more likely after 65
• Sexuality can be lifelong; most older adults report being
satisfied
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Slide 51
The End
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