ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY
Prerequisite – Students taking this course will have covered basic Biology
in Grade 9 or 10; the learned should have a knowledge of the chemistry
of life [water; macromolecules]; structure and function of the cell; and
cell metabolism.
Main topics of A & P include – an overview of cell structure and function;
Histology; and a detailed study of five selected organ systems.
Anatomy – deals with the structure; what is it made of? How?
Physiology – deals with function; the way that structure functions.
Structure and function go hand in hand. Consider for example, the
urinary bladder; blood vessels; teeth.
Discuss 2 other examples clearly identify the structure and then relating
that to its physiology. First in your own words; then go online and get
additional info [from a varistyname.edu; online text or scientific journal,
CDC or National Institutes of Health]
Levels of organization:
Atomic
molecular
organelle
cellular
organs
organ systems
organism
tissues
species…
Physiology deals mainly with the tissue, organ and organ systems levels.
There are 10 organ systems - name them:
Organ system
Basic structure
Functions
Links and Resources:
http://www.csun.edu/science/biology/anatomy/anatomy.html
http://humananatomyandphysiologyhq.com/ Accessed August 7, 12
Histology is the study of the structure and function of cell tissues.
Histology relies on microscopy to reveal the cells and their contents. A
high-powered compound light microscope is a basic requirement.
Good introductory notes on the epithelium
http://www.pathguy.com/histo/002.htm
http://www.kumc.edu/instruction/medicine/anatomy/histoweb/
Click on this link and investigate various tissue types.
Examine prepared microscope slides and online micrographs.
“Epithelia ensure many critical functions of the body, including protection against the external
environment, nutrition, respiration, and reproduction. Stem cells (SCs) located in the various
epithelia ensure the homeostasis and repair of these tissues throughout the lifetime of the
animal.” (Keymeulen and Blanpain, 2012. The Journal of Cell Biology)
Research one organ system; show its structure and function. Evaluate its
importance or contribution to the organism.
-
cell level – what do they look like
tissue level – what types of tissues
organ level – identify the organs and what they do
organ system – bring them all together.
Write in your own words; cite quotations and list your references.
1000 words
Due August 28, 2012
hard copy
Connective tissues – types and functions:
Good introductory notes on basic histology; micrographs.
http://www.pathguy.com/histo/002.htm
the 2 other groups of tissues are muscles and nerves.
Virtual lab – online database
The Neurone Connection,
http://www.wellesley.edu/Biology/Concepts/Html/theneuronconnection.html
Accessed August 18, 2012
Do the ‘neuron connection’ and takes notes of the structure and
function of the neuron; nerves; CNS and PNS.
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
Skin, hair and nails
Structure – 2 layers the dermis and outer layer, the epidermis
The skin has 4 kinds of tissue – epithelial; nervous [nerve endings and
receptors]; connective – blood and adipose tissue; and muscles.
The epidermis is the outermost layer and is composed of many layers of
flattened cells [squamous epithelium]. The topmost layers are dead cells
that may appear as dandruff on dry scalp. The inner epidermis
constantly produces new cells to replace the dead cells.
The inner, thicker layer is the dermis. It contains the 4 tissue types.
Muscle is in the form of collagen and elastin which makes your skin both
strong and elastic [able to stretch]
Function:
http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/biobookintegusys.html
Functions of the skin
Protective layer
Defense against pathogens
Homeostasis
Biosynthesis
Sensory stimuli
Excretory function
Notes
Protects the deep layers of the skin;
prevents drying by producing oil from
sebaceous glands
Barrier against pathogens; Is a part of
the inflammatory response
Temperature regulation together with
the hypothalamus; sweat produced
cools the skin; hair on skin insulates you
Production of vitamin D by the skin is
stimulated by sunlight that converts a
chemical in the skin to vitamin D
Has receptors that respond to touch,
pressure and external temperature
Sweat glands excretes water and
some waste products from the body
http://www.youtube.com/watch?NR=1&feature=endscreen&v=d-IJhAWrsm0
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SY8kIzQsZQ4&feature=related
Accessed August 25, 2012
****
Mice cloned from skin stem cells
Mice cloned from skin stem cells. The technology used, nuclear transfer,
entails replacing a mouse oocyte with a skin stem cell nucleus. The hybrid
cell is then cultured to form a tiny cluster of cells, which can be used either
to generate mice or to make embryonic stem (ES) cells.
See also Li, J., Greco, V., Guasch, G., Fuchs, E., and Mombaerts P. 2007.Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences USA 104:2738–2743.
Fuchs’ investigation, together with her colleague, show that skins cells can be
used to generate a whole organism as in the case with mice [see above]. Before
this only egg nuclei were successful in nuclear transfer. [Fucks, 2007]
An example of cell to cell communication
http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/begin/cells/cellcom/ Accessed August 30, 2012
The skin has 4 types of glands [an organ or tissue that excrete a substance]
Gland in skin
Sweat gland
Sebaceous gland
Ceruminous glands
Mammary glands
Function
Thermoregulation and excretion
Keeps skin waterproof; prevents skin drying
out
Produce earwax which keeps the ear drum
‘soft’ and prevents drying
Produce milk
Pigmentation
Melanocytes are cells that contain the pigment melanin. They are found in
the basal layer of the epidermis/innermost epidermis. This gives skin and
hair their color. The function of melanin is to protect the body from ultra
violet light in sunlight.
Albinism Keratin
Keratinocytes are cells that make keratin; keratin is a tough protein found
in hair and nails. Keratinocytes are found in the upper layer of the
epidermis [superficial]. Our nails and tough skin in the soles of the feet
give protection from mechanical pressure.
DISEASES OF THE SKIN
Acne
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001876/
Accessed September 1, 2012
Eczema/dermatitis
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001856/
Accessed September 1, 2012
Fungal infections – athlete’s foot
Keratosis is also called chicken skin because it looks like goose bumps; it
is not sore or itchy. It is not acne; it usually forms on the upper back and
other parts of the body. Over 50% of adolescents go through a time of
keratosis. (Alai, Nili; Arash Michael Saemi,Raul Del Rosario. "Keratosis Pilaris". eMedicine. 2008)
Keratosis occurs when the skin produces too much keratin; the keratin
surrounds and entraps the hair follicles.
Microbial infections
Psoriasis
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001470/
Accessed September 1, 2012
Tumors – may or may not be cancerous; moles are not cancer;
melanomas are cancers of the skin.
Ulcers – Mouth ulcers are sores in the mouth.
Pathological impacts on hair
Drugs used in cancer chemotherapy frequently cause a temporary loss of hair,
noticeable on the head and eyebrows, because they kill all rapidly dividing cells,
not just the cancerous ones. Other diseases and traumas can cause temporary
or permanent loss of hair, either generally or in patches. [Wikibooks, 2012]
Nails
Nails are made of keratin; they protect the inner layers of the body
Toe nails:
SKIN CARE
What is the effect of synthetic cosmetics on the skin? What are some of the
substances in facial cosmetics? Discuss the effects of mercury and other
compounds in skin-lightening creams.
Activity – create a virtual facial skin cream made from natural substances. If
you add any synthetic chemicals, justify your decision. The cream should be
effective or at least helpful against acne
Substance in skin
cream
Royal jelly

What it does for the skin
Package it attractively!
HEALTH
What is the drug patch delivery system? How does it work? Compare its
efficacy to hypodermal injections and oral intake of medicine.
[Transdermal patch]
½ page plus a small image
******
Poster Project
A&P
Block H
Due date September 7, 12
NAIL IT!!
Make a fact sheet on nails – It must be both eye-catching
and informative
What are nails? Outline the structure and function of nails.
Get actual photos from at least 10 persons – fingernails
and toenails.
When nails go wrong – infections and disorders.
What should be done about it – Medical/professional referral.
On A3 paper or poster size. Show all sources and credits in font size 10
Hair Growth
Hair growth occurs in cycles consisting of three phases:



Anagen (growth phase): Most hair is growing at any given time. Each hair
spends several years in this phase.
Catagen (transitional phase): Over a few weeks, hair growth slows and
the hair follicle shrinks.
Telogen (resting phase): Over months, hair growth stops and the old hair
detaches from the hair follicle. A new hair begins the growth phase,
pushing the old hair out.
Hair grows at different rates in different people; the average rate is around onehalf inch per month. Hair color is created by pigment cells producing melanin in
the hair follicle. With aging, pigment cells die, and hair turns gray.
http://www.webmd.com/skin-problems-and-treatments/picture-of-the-hair
Accessed September 4, 2012
Burns
A burn is damage to your body's tissues caused by heat, chemicals, electricity,
sunlight or radiation. Scalds from hot liquids and steam, building fires and flammable
liquids and gases are the most common causes of burns.
There are three types of burns:



First-degree burns damage only the outer layer of skin [epidermis]
Second-degree burns damage the outer layer and the layer underneath
Third-degree burns damage or destroy the deepest layer of skin and tissues
underneath [up till the hypodermis]
Burns can cause swelling, blistering, scarring and, in serious cases, shock and even
death. They also can lead to infections because they damage your skin's protective
barrier. Antibiotic creams can prevent or treat infections. After a third-degree burn, you
need skin or synthetic grafts to cover exposed tissue and encourage new skin to
grow. First- and second-degree burns usually heal without grafts.
NIH: National Institute of General Medical Sciences
CHECK: What is a skin graft? How does it help generate new skin?
Effects of Aging on the Integumentary System
A. Reduced Blood Flow
B. Decreased Elasticity
C. Loss of Subcutaneous Tissue
D. Decreased Glandular Activity
E. Decreased Melanocytes With Uneven Distribution
(Seeley et al, Anatomy & Physiology)
SKIN CANCER – Melanomas
Cancers that develop from melanocytes, the pigment-making cells of the skin,
are called melanomas. Melanocytes can also form benign growths called moles.
Melanoma and moles are discussed in our document called Melanoma Skin
Cancer.
Skin cancers that are not melanoma are sometimes grouped together as nonmelanoma skin cancers because they tend to act very differently from
melanomas.
[www.cancer.org/Skin cancer-Basal and squamous cell]
Review – Animations:
http://nhscience.lonestar.edu/biol/ap1int.htm#bonejoint
Accessed September 5, 2012
Remember – there are 4 types of tissues
Source: articlesweb.org
Retrieved September 8, 2012
There are 7 kinds of connective tissue: Bone, cartilage, areolar tissue
[loose connective tissue], blood, elastin; fibrous and lymphatic tissue. The
main functions of connective tissue are:
Support
Protection
Transport
Insulation
Bone provide a support framework; skeletal
muscles are used for movement
Bones protect organs like the lungs, spinal cord,
brain; lymphatic system fights pathogens
Blood is the transport system
Adipose tissue [fat tissue] in the hypodermis
keeps you warm. Fat also acts as a shock
absorber in vital organs like the heart and kidney.
Images
Source: articlesweb.org
Retrieved September 8, 2012
http://www.articlesweb.org/news/connective-tissues-types-and-features
Connective tissue
Aerolar
Adipose
Blood
Bone
Cartilage
Elastin
Cell type
Various; protein fibers
adipose cells
Blood cells
Osteocytes
Chondrocyte
Elastic protein fibers
Notes
Bind epithelium to other tissue
Storage of fat/insulation
Transport
Support
Support
Elasticity and support
Fibrous
Lymphatic
Fibroblasts
Leukocytes
Strength and support
Defense against pathogens
Bone histology
http://microanatomy.net/bone/compact_bone_histology.htm
Accessed September 11, 2012
Harvesian canals/canilculi
Osteocytes; lacuna
Blood supply
Calcium deposits
Skeletal bones – compact bones
Compact bone:
The osteon or Harvesian system is the structural unit of the bone. It consists of
cylindrical channels running the length of the bone. The central canal has blood
vessels and nerves which branch sideways into the osteon. Osteocytes are arranged
in concentric rings in the osteon. These cells are found in small spaces called
lacunae.
Spongy bone tissue is so called because they have spaces in them and resemble a
sponge; the osteons are not as tightly packed as in compact bone. It is found in the
center of long bones. Bone marrow is spongy bone.
http://eugraph.com/histology/crtbone/spongbo.html Accessed Septmeber 13, 12
Red bone marrow is found in flat bones like the ribs and sternum. It makes red blood
cells, white blood cells and platelets. Yellow marrow is found in the diaphysis [bone
shaft] of long bones. It is a store for fat and is easily converted into red marrow when you
need to make more blood cells.
Development of bone
In the embryo it starts as cartilage. As the child grows deposits of calcium phosphate
into the bone cells makes the bones hard. Cartilage formation and replacement is how
bones grow. Teeth develop from alveolar bone found in the maxilla and mandibles.
Bone, horizontal loss of,
n a resorption of bone caused by periodontal inflammation in which the bone crest remains
even with the cementoenamel junctions of two adjoining teeth. The condition may be
localized or generalized.
http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/spongy+bone
Bone disorders
Fractures – a break in the bone[s]
Osteroporosis – decalcification of bones usually with aging
Osteomyelitis – infection of the bone by bacteria
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0004996/
Accessed Sep 20, 12
Rickets –severe bow legged appearance due to lake of vitamin D. The latter is
needed for calcium uptake by the bones.
Bone cancer / tumor
Bone cancer that starts in the bones is called primary bone cancer. That which comes
to the bones as it spreads from other organs s called secondary bone. This can occur
if cancer spreads from the kidneys, breasts and lungs.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0002210/ Accessed Sep 20, 12
ACTIVITY
Interactive Case Studies and the Human Body
http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/abio/casestudies/
Accessed Sept 11, 12
Case Studies by Sandmire
http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/ap/ap_casestudies/index.html
Accessed Sept 11, 12
THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
Get body smart
http://www.getbodysmart.com/ap/skeletalsystem/skeleton/menu/menu.html
Sept 13, 12
http://anatomycorner.com/main/anatomy-topics/skeletal-system/
The heel bone is called calcaneous; it connects to the carpals which
connect to the metacarpals; phalanges.
Source: http://freeweb.com
Axial skeleton – skull, neck; vertebral column; rib cage
Appendicular skeleton – limbs and girdles [pelvic and 2 shoulder blades & collar
bones]
The human skeletal is made of 206 bones – support; a place for muscles to attach
and together allow movement.
Anatomy of a long bone
http://anatomycorner.com/skeletal/bone_coloring.html Accessed September 16, 12
epihysis; diaphysis; periosteum; artuclar cartilage; marrow
Notes from Anatomy Corner – link anatomycorner.com
http://anatomycorner.com/skeletal/notes_ch7.html
Distinguish between osteoblasts and osteoclasts.
What is resorption? What is bone remodeling?
Vertebrate joints and locomotion
Skeletal muscles are attached to bones by at least 2 tendons, tough connective fibers
made of collagen. Two bones are connected at a joint and held in place by ligaments.
Tendons connect muscle to bone. A muscle can only shorten and pull on a bone.
Once shortened, it can be extended back to its original length by the action of another
muscle. In the arm, the biceps are in front and the triceps are at the back. They are
an antagonistic pair of muscles, moving the arm in opposite directions.
Joints are classified into 3 types according to their structure and the amount of
movement they allow.
Fibrous joints found between the bones of the skull
Cartilaginous joints, for example intervertebral discs
Synovial joints contain a cavity filled with fluid and they move freely in one or more
plane.
Ball and socket joints – in pelvic girdle and shoulder blade sockets
Hinge joints – elbow and knee
Pivot joints – allow rotation between radius and ulna
Gliding joints – sliding movement between scapula and clavicle
Saddle joint – allow rotation in the wrist bones.
Arthritis
Arthritis is inflammation of one or more joints. A joint is the area where two bones meet.
There are over 100 different types of arthritis.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0002223/
Accessed Sept 30, 12
Bone Marrow and blood stem cells
“or·tho·pe·dics/ˌôrTHəˈpēdiks/
Noun:The branch of medicine dealing with the prevention and correction of deformities of bones
or muscles”.
Orthopedic transplant in the ulna – to the right hand side of
the image.
Fracture –a broken bone.
A fracture may be open [break through the skin], closed [no skin break] or displaced,
where the broken parts are out of alignment.
Type of fracture
Displaced
Open
Can be either
Closed
Name
Comminuted
Simple fracture/
transverse
Symptoms
Bone moves from its location
Bone displaced and cuts through the skin
Multiple breaks in a bone
Horizontal break but stays in place.
Angular break but stays in alignment
Closed
Both
Closed
Both
Compound fracture/
oblique
Greenstick
Impacted
Hairline crack
Stress fracture
A bent bone – usually in young children
Crushed in from both ends
A crack in the bone
Caused by strain or an unrelated condition.
For example osteoporosis causes brittle
bones that can break
Research and turn it in: Hip replacement therapy
Hormones and bone growth
The growth of bones is regulated by growth hormone [GH].
“GH affects several tissues including liver, muscle, kidney, and bone... Since GH has
important effects on skeletal tissues, our focus in this article will be on our current
understanding of GH effects on bone. A large increase in bone mass occurs during
childhood and puberty via endochondral bone formation. A gradual increase in bone
mass is then seen until peak bone mass is reached at 20–30 years of age.
Subsequently, bone mass decreases with an accelerated bone loss seen in females
after menopause. Bone remodeling is regulated by a balance between bone
resorption and bone formation. In this process GH is known to play a role”… (Ohlsson
et al, 1998, Endocrine Reviews).
“Bone
remodeling is the process of new bone formation by osteoblasts and bone
resorption by osteoclasts. GH directly…stimulates osteoblast proliferation and activity,
promoting bone formation. It also stimulates osteoclast differentiation and activity,
promoting bone resorption. The result is an increase in the overall rate of bone
remodeling, with a net effect of bone accumulation”
Copyright 2003 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12868124 Accessed Sep 22, 12
Remember:
Osteocytes – bone cells in the osteon
Osteoblasts – bone cells that make new bone cells from cartilage
Osteoclasts – bone cells that break down and reabsorb bone tissue.
Hip Replacement Surgery
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DosqbEy8ecY
Accessed Sept 30, 12
Review video: The Skeletal system
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8d-RBe8JBVs
Accessed October 10,12
Human Muscles
Know the location and muscle group names. For example, the quadriceps are a set
of muscles in each thigh [anterior side].
http://www.getbodysmart.com/ap/muscularsystem/armmuscles/menu/menu.html
http://anatomycorner.com/muscles/muscles_coloring.html
Upper arm – anterior view
Posterior view
Deltoid; pectoralis; biceps
Deltoid; triceps
Abdomen
Abdominus – transverse and rectus
Neck – anterior view - Mastoids
Calf muscles are called gastrocnemius.
Butt muscles are called gluteal muscles – a set of 3 in each pelvic posterior area.
Skeletal Muscle
Animation: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=83yNoEJyP6g&feature=related Accessed
Dec. 16, 2010
We shall examine the biceps as a typical example of a skeletal muscle. The
biceps is a large fleshy organ covered by a sheath of connective tissue. It is a
spindle-shaped muscle connected to the scapula by 2 tendons and to the radius by
1 tendon. The biceps is richly supplied with blood vessels, so that every part of the
muscle had access to oxygen and food [glucose; muscle glycogen].
Nerves containing sensory and motor neurons enter the muscle along with the
blood vessels. The nerves branch many times and reach all parts of the muscle.
Motor fibers from the CNS control the tension in the muscles. Sensory neurons
carry information from pain and pressure receptors to the CNS.
Muscle fibers in the biceps
Under a light microscope we see that the biceps are made of thousands of cells
called muscle fibers. Each muscle fiber has its cytoplasm called sarcoplasm and cell
membrane called sarcolemma. Muscle cells are long and multinucleated. Each
cell is supplied with 3 or 4 capillaries. Motor neurons branch repeatedly and can
supply up to 150 muscle cells. All the muscle fibers served by the same motor
neuron are called a motor unit because they work together, contracting or
relaxing at the same time.
Each branch of an axon terminates at a plate-like structure called a
neuromuscular junction the neuron to muscle synapse. It is the connection
between a neuron and a muscle fiber. The neurotransmitter at the synapse is
acetylcholine.
Slow-twitch and fast-twitch fibers
There are two types of muscle fibers – they have different colors [when stained]
and they contract at different speeds. The two types are slow-twitch or red fibers
and fast-twitch or white fibers.
Slow twitch fibers are adapted to function over long periods. They respire
anaerobically to avoid the build-up of lactic acids that would quickly fatigue
them. They have their own metabolic fuel, muscle glycogen, and can also respire
aerobically to metabolize fats stored in the body. They have a rich blood supply
and high density of mitochondria to use oxygen efficiently and generate large
amounts of ATP.
Fast twitch fibers are adapted for short bursts of explosive action. They generate
ATP quickly and anaerobically from stores of a high-energy compound, creatine
phosphate [CP], and by lactate fermentation. When CP breaks down it releases
energy and phosphate ions which can be used to make ATP for up to 10 seconds of
activity. CP is regenerated during aerobic respiration. They have comparatively
less myoglobin and mitochondria than slow –twitch fibers, they can use lactate
fermentation but this makes them fatigue quickly.
Most people have roughly equal numbers of slow and fast twitch fibers, but the
proportion varies in trained athletes: endurance athletes tend to have more slowtwitch fibers while power athletes tend to have more fast-twitch fibers.
Muscle fibers under the electron microscope
Examining a single muscle cell/fiber under the electron microscope reveals that it it
made up of a bundle of smaller fibers called myofibrils. Skeletal muscles appear
striated/striped because of the combination of these myofibrils causing alternate
light and dark bands. A myofibril consists of repeating units called sarcomeres.
A sarcomere is a region between two dark lines called Z lines. The sarcomere is the
functional unit in the action of a muscle fiber. The sarcomere contains two kinds of
filaments called the thin filaments and thick filaments. A thin filament is made of
a double stranded protein called actin. The thick filaments are made of parallel
strands of proteins called myosin. The thin filaments comprise the light bands while
the thick filaments form the dark bands.
http://www.ucl.ac.uk/~sjjgsca/muscleSlidingFilament.html accessed Dec 21, 2010
The Sliding Filament Theory
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pWP1u7rRJS8&feature=related
Steven L Gourley©
accessed December 23, 2010
Fitness and Training
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Nutrition
Diet – the foods you eat regularly make up your diet
Food groups and the new food pyramid:
Carbohydrates
Grains, nuts, legume
Fats and oils
Animal fat; plant oils
Proteins
Meat – red; white. Seafood and
dairy products
Vitamins and
Fruits and vegetables; nuts
minerals
Eat lots of this
Little
Moderate
Lots
fitfinity.net
** Construct a poster size food pyramid of authentic Korean foods [30]
Place them correctly in the food pyramid. Add notes the recommended
quantities [RDA] per food group in the diet.
What are calories and kilocalories?
A nutrient is a chemical substance found in foods and used in the human body.
Essential nutrients include – essential amino acids; essential fatty acids;
minerals; vitamins and water.
Amino Acids
The body needs 20 different amino acids which its uses to make proteins. 11 of
these can be made by the body 9 of them cannot and you get them from the
food you eat. They are called essential amino acids.
Protein Deficiency
Deficiency is the term used to describe a case where a person is not getting
enough nutrients and this lack causes health problem[s]. Protein deficiency can
lead to under-production of blood plasma proteins. As a result the body retains
fluid. This is often seen in the distended bellies of young children in some
developing countries
Kwashiokor – protein deficiency; marasmus – general malnutrition.
Prevention/cure. Keep chickens and feed the children on the eggs.
Fatty Acids
Saturated fats and unsaturated fats – what’s the fuss about?
Elmhurst.edu
Saturated fats have no double bonds; they have their max number of hydrogen
atoms. The molecule has a straight shape. Animal fats are saturated.
Unsaturated fats have double bonds between some carbon atoms; they have
less than max number of hydrogen atoms. Plant oils and fish oils
Polyunsaturated fatty acids have at least 2 double bonds in the carbon chain.
The molecule has a curved shape. Olive oil is an example.
http://www.omega3learning.uconn.edu/info/what-are-omega-3-fatty-acids/omega-3-fattyacid-structures/ Accessed Oct 16, 12
Omega-3 fatty acids are polyunsaturated fats with 3 carbon bonds starting at
the third carbon atom from the omega end of the molecule. Foods rich in
omega-3 include fish oils, walnuts and canola oil.
Summary
Characteristics
Shape
Origin
State at room temp.
Saturated fatty acids
Straight
Animals
Solid
Unsaturated fatty acids
Bent and twisted
plants
liquid
The shape of the molecule is important because inside your body, fatty acids
which are curved are more easily picked up by the flowing blood in your
arteries. The straight molecules tend to stick to the arteries and can cause a
deposit called plaque that can block arteries.
If this happens in arteries of the heart, it causes cardiac arrest [heart attack]. If
an artery is blocked, no blood can pass through and the cells/tissues relying on
that artery to bring food and oxygen will die.
NEW & NUTRITIOUS!
October 15, 2012
Create a new nutritious food for health teens or
for malnourished children in a developing country.
Include the following:
 Recipe – step by step cooking method
 Fact sheet/promotional brochure
 Food label
 Mini video of you making the food
 Bring fresh samples to be tested/sampled
by GSIS classmates.
See attached rubric to guide you.
SCORING GUIDE
Category and score
4-Superb; 3-Good; 2-So so; 1-Poor
Originality – student recipe is unique
not copied
Food facts – Fact sheet is scientifically
sound + food label as well
Student cookery video: State what
ingredients were used in recipe;
demonstrate the steps.
Presentation – looks good and tastes
great.
Names of samplers:
Tasted and scored
by a student
________________
Tasted and scored
by a teacher
_________________
Final score
You will score well if you pay attention to the directions above and meet the categories in
the peer-and-teacher scoring guide above.
Due date – October 30, 12
Water – why do we need water in the diet?
Did you know that thousands of children die daily because of unclean water?
Name 5 water-related diseases.
The global picture of water and health has a strong local dimension with some 1.1 billion
people still lacking access to improved drinking water sources and some 2.4 billion to
adequate sanitation. Today we have strong evidence that water-, sanitation and
hygiene-related diseases account for some 2,213,000 deaths annually and an annual
loss of 82,196,000 Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALYs) (R. Bos, Dec. 2004).
http://www.lenntech.com/library/diseases/diseases/waterbornediseases.htm#ixzz293che1uc
Read more:
Cholera; typhoid fever; dysentery; hepatitis A
Prevention is better than cure:
Wash your hands; Boil all drinking water
Oral rehydration as first aid for diarrhea
Disinfectants like chlorine and ozone used to clean water.
Activity
Tiger book page 228
DBQ on saturated fats and coronary heart disease [CHD]. Plot graph; analyse
and evaluate the case for CHD.
Bell ringer – list 6 water-related diseases. Discuss 1 in more detail.
Minerals and Vitamins
Minerals
Needs in very small amounts in
the diet
Not organic – are chemicals in
ionic form like Ca2+ is calcium
ion
Nuts and liver are a good source
Vitamins
Needs in very small amounts in
the diet
Organic compounds – for
example vitamins C is ascorbic
acid
Fruits and vegetables
Iodine deficiency results in goiter; it can be prevented by using iodized salt.
Calcium deficiency results weak bones and teeth. Prevention – eat fish
especially small fishes that you can eat whole.
Vitamin C is essential for formation of collagen. If deficient the resulting
condition is scurvy, characterized by bleeding gums. The cure is eating fruits.
Vitamin D is essential for healthy bones. If deficient the resulting condition is
rickets, characterized by curved leg bones [femur, tibia and fibula].
Suggest a cure for rickets
Dietary fiber
Dietary fiber is found in vegetables like cabbage and spinach; it is mainly
cellulose which cannot be digested. Fiber increases the bulk of material passing
through the intestines and helps to prevent constipation. Research shows that
dietary fiber can help reduce the chance for colon cancer and hemorrhoids.
Classwork
Research colon cancer– what are the causes; symptoms; prevention and control.
What are hemorrhoids?
Colon cancer
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001308/ Accessed October 22, 2012
OBESITY
Reasons for obesity include:
 Fast foods and junk food
 Large portion of food
 Not walking, cycling or other exercise
 Sedentary lifestyle – computer games; sitting in the office all day.
BMI is body mass index. BMI=mass in kilograms/(height in meters)2
Units for BMI are kg m-2
Calculate your BMI and that of your classmates. [Get your stats from the school
nurse].
BMI of 18 to 24.9 is normal weight
BMI of 25.0 to 29.9 is overweight
 Below 18 is underweight; 30 and above is obese.
Dentition
The number, type and arrangement of teeth in a person’s mouth. Children
have 20 milk teeth that are later replaced by permanent teeth – total of 32
Incisors
Canines
Premolars
Molars
Dental care
8
4
8
12
the last 4 to grow are called wisdom teeth
Brush your teeth daily, especially after meals. This will prevent you from
getting cavities [holes in the teeth]. Cavities are formed when bacteria feed on
left over food stuck between the teeth; they produce acids which make holes in
the enamel of the teeth.
Why do we use mouthwash?
resources.teachnet.ie
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z7xKYNz9AS0 Accessed Sep 22, 12
The digestive system is also known as the alimentary canal or the gut.
Cells and Tissues of the Digestive System
Tissue type
Location
Function
Epithelial
Muscles
Bones & teeth
Blood vessels
Lymphatic
Nerves
Mucosal cells line the inner
tube of the gut
Smooth muscles along the
entire gut
Sphincter muscles – cardiac,
pyloric, anus
Maxilla and mandible;
areolar bone forms teeth
In the villi of the intestines
Lacteals in the villi
The central nervous system
controls digestion
Produce mucus in stomach to
protect from HCl.
Mechanical digestion by peristalsis –
the contraction and relaxation of
these muscles pushes food in the gut
The upper and lower jaws hold the
teeth. Teeth bite and chew food.
Bring food and oxygen to the gut.
Hepatic portal vein carries all
digested food to the liver
When to eat and when to stop
eating; fear and flight response when
the body is in danger.
Interactive digestive system:
http://www.innerbody.com/image/digeov.html
Accessed Sep 22,12
Cells of the digestive system
Epithelial cells; mucosal cells; cells that produce digestive enzymes. For
example, the cells in the salivary glands produce saliva which helps you to
chew and swallow. They also have the enzyme amylase which digests starch.
Organs of the digestive system
Organ
Function [and structure]
Mouth
lips; oral cavity; teeth; tongue; salivary glands;
Upper and lower jaws, pharynx; epiglottis
Oesophagus
long tube [gullet] peristalsis
Stomach
cardiac sphincter; chyme; HCl; pyloric sphincter
Pancreas
secretes pancreatic juice that has digestive
enzymes. Produces the hormone insulin
Small intestines
duodenum; ileum; jejunum; digestive enzymes; villi
for absorption of digested food.
[Liver]
all digested food first goes to the liver
the liver is the detoxification center of the body
Large intestines
ileo-cecal valve; 3 parts of the colon; peristalsis;
Reabsorption of water from undigested matter.
Rectum
temporary store for feces; defacation/egestion
Functions of the Digestive System
 Ingestion
 Digestion
 Absorption
 Defecation
lessontutor.com
Chemical digestion
http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=endscreen&NR=1&v=qyJx_UVEgQI
Accessed October 10, 12
Another video on digestion:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XxvRbxhqoZk&feature=watch-vrec
Accessed November 1, 12
What are Enzymes?
http://www.vitallywell.net/digestive-enzymes.html
Accessed October 11, 12
Enzymes are large proteins made of long chains of amino acids. They have
a three dimensional structure. In the enzyme is a pocket-like place into
which the substrate fits. This is the active site. A substrate is the substance
that fits into a specific enzyme. Food particle are the substrate for digestive
enzymes.
Enzymes are organic catalysts. A catalyst is a substance that speed up a
chemical reaction but it remains unchanged by the reaction. Enzymes are
specific in the chemical reactions they catalyze. Ingested food is digested
chemically by enzymes. Enzymes are produced by gastric glands in the
stomach, intestinal cells and the pancreas.
Enzyme – group
or name
Amylases
Lipases
Proteases
Sucrase
Maltase
Lactase
Substrate
Examples or notes
Starch in carbs like rice,
potatoes, bread
Break up fats and oils
Break up proteins into amino
acids
Salivary amylase
Pancreatic amylase
In small intestines
Pepsin in the stomach;
trypsin in the small
intestines
Digests table sugar
Into glucose and fructose
which are absorbed into
blood
Digests malt sugar which is a Starch is digested into
byproduct of starch
maltose which is also
digestion
digested into glucose
Digests milk sugar
Some people cannot
digest lactose
Humans cannot digest cellulose; it makes fiber which helps our bowel
movements.
Enzyme Basics – animation:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AFbPHlhI13g
Accessed November 13, 12
Digestive System – epiglottitis
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R9puIKVON-s&feature=related
Accessed November 16, 12
Digestion from the inside
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Uzl6M1YlU3w
Accessed Nov 16,12
Stomach
Structure
The cardiac part right next to the heart
Next to it is the fundus – the ‘swollen’
part
Then the body – the middle section of
the stomach
Pylorus – the funnel end of the
stomach that leads to the pyloric
sphincter
Function of the stomach
Temporary holding tank for
food. Digestion of proteins starts
here. Contraction and
relaxation of the stomach
muscles mix and churn the food
into a fluid called chyme. This
makes it easier for digestion in
the next stage.
Digestion in the stomach
Gastric juice has hydrochloric acid that makes the pH in the stomach
very acidic. The acid activates pepsinogen into pepsin. Pepsin breaks
down proteins into smaller compounds. Babies produce the enzyme
rennin that digests milk proteins.
Stomach ulcer video
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SWMWsOXlBwE&feature=related
Accessed Nov 16, 12
A comparison of the small and large intestines
Small intestines
The place for chemical digestion and
absorption of nutrients [from digested
food]
Three parts – duodenum; jejunum and
ileum
The duodenum connects to the
stomach
Very long with a narrower diameter
The intestine wall has 2 layers of
muscles
Have villi and micro-villi for absorption
of digested food
All digested food first goes to the liver
Large intestines
The place for absorption of water;
some vitamin K synthesis by good
bacteria
Many parts – appendix; cecum;
colon, rectum and anal canal
The ileo-cecal valve connects the
small intestines to the colon
Shorter and wider than small intestines
The wall of the colon has three muscle
layers
Has pocket-like structures to increase
surface area for water absorption
All undigested food material goes to
via the hepatic portal vein
the rectum where feces is stored
temporarily.
Pancreas
Located behind the stomach and attached to the posterior by the
omentum. The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice that contains
enzymes to digest the macronutrients. It is alkaline ad neutralizes acid
chime from the stomach as it enters the duodenum. The pancreas also
secretes 2 hormones, insulin and glucagon which together regulate the
level of glucose in the blood.
Liver
The cells of the liver are called hepatocytes
legacy.owensboro.kctcs.edu
liver lobules have a hexagonal shape. In the center is the central vein.
Figure 16
shows a very large portal area
with many profiles lying among four liver lobules. A
central vein can be seen in the lobule at the right. The
magnification is the same as in the previous image.
*********
Disorders of the alimentary canal - Research
Acid reflux
Upset stomach/Bowel constriction/hernia
Gastrointestinal infections
Stomach ulcers
Colon cancer
Hemorrhoids
Good resource:
http://www.webmd.com/digestive-disorders/picture-of-the-pancreas
Accessed November 21, 12
HOMEOSTATSIS
Maintaining a balance or staying as close to the normal limits for several
variables:
Blood pH
Carbon dioxide concentration
Blood glucose levels
Body temperature
Water balance
The normal set point for body temperature is 370C
The hypothalamus in the brain has a temperature regulation center that
receives messages from thermoreceptors in your skin.
When body temp rises above normal
Cooling mechanism
Sweat produced by sweat glands
evaporates and results in cooling
Arterioles in the dermis widen
[vasodilation]; more blood flows and
body heat radiates from the blood
No shivering
If body temp drops below the norm
Warming mechanism
Little or no sweat
The reverse – vasoconstriction of
arterioles; blood stays in inner parts of
the body retaining body heat.
Shivering – muscles contract rapidly
generating heat
Behavioral – wear warm clothing
Virtual lab & Video
http://bcs.whfreeman.com/thelifewire8e/content/cat_010/40040.html
Accessed November 27, 12
VIDEO:
 Explains homeostasis for students learning the topic for the first time
http://www.learnerstv.com/animation/animation.php?ani=241&cat=Biology
GIZMO:
 As external temperature and internal water and blood sugar levels change,
adjust factors to maintain internal stability.
http://www.explorelearning.com/index.cfm?method=cResource.dspDetail&Resourc
eID=519
Source: Mcfarlane and Garfalo
bohone09.wikispaces.com
Some liver cells produce bile that is stored in the gall bladder. Bile is not
an enzyme but it helps digestion of fats by emulsifying them into small
droplets for lipases to digest. All digested food/nutrients first go to the
live via the hepatic portal vein.
The liver stores glucose in the form of glycogen. This reserve is used when
you are very hungry. The liver receives hormonal messages from
glucagon and insulin to increase or decrease blood glucose
respectively.
The liver is the chief detoxification center in the body. The liver holds
much blood; it stores blood protein, albumin. It processes cholesterol
needed by the cells as a component of the cell membranes. The liver
breaks down old and damaged red blood cells.
Animations:
The 4 types of chemical reactions:
Animation: The four types of chemical reactions
http://www.wisc-online.com/objects/ViewObject.aspx?ID=AP13004
Energy conversion and conservation
http://multimedia.mcb.harvard.edu/anim_rhino.html
Gastic secretion
http://highered.mcgrawhill.com/sites/0072437316/student_view0/chapter43/animations.html#
Virtual fetal pig dissection:
http://www.whitman.edu/content/virtualpig
Accessed November 27,12
Record of Lab Investigations – Anatomy & Physiology
Date
August 23,
2012
Sept 3, 13
Sept 3, 12
Activity
Microscopy – examine prepared slides of
epithelial and connective tissue
NAIL IT. Make a poster-sized fact sheet on the
structure and function of nails; nail care; nail
conditions or disorders
Poster – make a fact sheet on nails;
Devise a virtual skin cream/shampoo – all
components must be natural; discuss the pros
and cons of cosmetics.
Oct 25, 12
BMI activity – calculate your BMI
Oct 10, 12
Oct 15, 12
Project – Food pyramid of Korean foods
Project – New and nutritious food. Sheet project
sheet for details. Present on October 30,12
Food tests – test for the presence of starch,
protein and reducing sugars in given samples
Virtual fetal pig dissection
http://www.whitman.edu/content/virtualpig
Nov 3, 12
Nov 28, 12
Appraisal
Sep10. 12
Due Sept 7, 12
October 30, 12