Political Parties
The Meaning of Party
• Political Party:
– A “team of men [and women] seeking to control
the governing apparatus by gaining office in a duly
constituted election”
• Parties can be thought of in three parts:
– Party in the electorate
– Party as an organization
– Party in government
The Meaning of Party
• Tasks of the Parties
– Linkage Institution: the channels through which people’s
concerns become political issues on the government’s
policy agenda
– Parties Pick Candidates
– Parties Run Campaigns
– Parties Give Cues to Voters
– Parties Articulate Policies
– Parties Coordinate Policymaking
LINKAGE INSTITUTION:
POLITICAL PARTIES represent broad points of view —
or IDEOLOGIES — that present people with alternative
approaches to how the government should be run. Each
party seeks political power by electing people to office so
that its positions and philosophy become public policy.
For example, both the Republican and Democratic
candidates for President present competing plans for
solving a wide array of public issues. People, then, link to
their government by identifying themselves as
"Democrats," "Republicans," or "Reform" party members,
for example.
LINKAGE INSTITUTIONS
CAMPAIGNS and elections involve citizens by reminding
them of their ultimate power — the vote. Campaigns
today are increasingly elaborate and long, costing
millions of dollars, and attracting the public's attention in
any way they can. For all the expense and glitz, the
process of electing government officials provides citizens
with vital information regarding issues and candidates'
qualifications for office
LINKAGE INSTITUTIONS:
INTEREST GROUPS organize people with common
interests and attitudes to influence government to support
their points of view. They generally represent only one
issue or a closely related set of concerns. So, people can
organize according to their profession, business,
corporation, or hobby — yet another way to "link" to
government.
LINKAGE
INSTITUTIONS:
The MEDIA play an important role in connecting
people to government. Most of us find out about
candidates for office, public officials' activities, and the
burning issues of the day through television,
newspapers, radio, and the Internet. The media's
power to shape the American mind has often been
criticized, but it also allows people to give feedback to
the government.
The Meaning of Party
• Parties, Voters, and Policy: The Downs Model
– Rational-choice theory
• Assumes that individuals act in their own best interest,
weighing the costs and benefits of possible alternatives
– Downs Model
• Voters maximize chances that policies they favor are
adopted by government.
• Parties want to win elected office.
The Meaning of Party
The Party in the Electorate
• Party image
– A voter’s perception of what Republicans or Democrats
stand for
• Party identification
– A citizen’s self-proclaimed preference for one party or
the other
– Republican, Democrat, or Independent
The Party in the Electorate
• Ticket-splitting
– Voting with one party for one office and with another
party for other offices
– Independents are most likely to split tickets.
– No state or race is completely safe due to split tickets.
The Party in the Electorate
The Party Organizations: From the
Grass Roots to Washington
• These are the people that work for the party.
• Local Parties
– Party Machines: a type of political party organization that
relies heavily on material inducements to win votes and to
govern
– Patronage: a job, promotion or contract given for political
reasons rather than merit; used by party machines
– Due to progressive reforms, urban party organizations are
generally weak.
– Revitalization of party organization at county level
The Party Organizations: From the
Grass Roots to Washington
• The 50 State Party Systems
– Closed primaries: Only people who have registered with
the party can vote for that party’s candidates.
– Open primaries: Voters decide on Election Day whether
they want to vote in the Democrat or Republican primary.
– Blanket primaries: Voters are presented with a list of
candidates from all parties.
– State parties are better organized in terms of headquarters
and budgets than they used to be.
The Party Organizations: From the
Grass Roots to Washington
• The National Party Organizations
– National Convention: the meeting of party
delegates every four years to choose a presidential
ticket and the party’s platform
– National Committee: one of the institutions that
keeps the party operating between conventions
– National Chairperson: responsible for day-to-day
activities of the party
The Party in Government: Promises
and Policy
• Party members actually elected to government
• Which party controls government has policy
consequences.
• Coalition: a group of individuals with a common
interest upon which every political party depends
• Parties and politicians generally act on their
campaign promises.
The Party in Government: Promises
and Policy
Party Eras in
American History
• Party Eras
– Historical periods in which a majority of votes cling to the
party in power
• Critical Election
– An electoral “earthquake” where new issues and new
coalitions emerge
• Party Realignment
– The displacement of the majority party by the minority
party, usually during a critical election
Party Eras in
American History
• 1796-1824: The First Party System
– Madison warned of “factions”
– Federalists: first political party
• 1828-1856: Jackson and the Democrats Versus
the Whigs
– Modern party founded by Jackson
– Whigs formed mainly to oppose Jacksonian
Democrats
Party Eras in
American History
• 1860-1928: The Two Republican Eras
– Republicans rose as the antislavery party
– 1896 election centered on industrialization
• 1932-1964: The New Deal Coalition
– New Deal coalition: forged by the Democrats;
consisted of urban working class, ethnic groups,
Catholics, Jews, the poor, Southerners
Party Eras in American History
Party Eras in American History
• 1968-Present: The Era of Divided Party
Government
– Divided government: one party controls Congress
and the other controls White House
– Divided government due in party to:
• Party dealignment: disengagement of people from
parties as evidenced by shrinking party identification
• Party neutrality: people are indifferent towards the two
parties
Party Eras in American History
Party Eras in American History
Third Parties: Their Impact on
American Politics
• Third parties: electoral contenders other than the
two party parties; rarely win elections
• Third parties are important.
– Are “safety valves” for popular discontent
– Bring new groups and ideas into politics
• Two-party system
– Discourages extreme views
– Contributes to political ambiguity
Third Parties: Their Impact on
American Politics
• Multiparty Systems in Other Countries
– Winner-take-all system: legislative seats awarded
only to first place finishers
– Proportional Representation: legislative seats
awarded based on votes received by the party more votes, more seats
– Coalition Government: two or more parties join to
form a majority in a national legislature
Understanding Political Parties
• Democracy and Responsible Party Government
– Responsible Party Model
1. Parties have distinct comprehensive programs.
2. Candidates are committed to the program.
3. The majority party must carry out its program.
4. The majority party must accept responsibility.
– American political parties fall short of these conditions.
– No mechanism for party discipline
Understanding Political Parties
• American Political Parties and the Scope of
Government
– Lack of uniformity keeps government small
• Big programs like Health Care (1994) fail
– But also makes cutting government programs
difficult
• Individuals focus on getting more from government for
their own constituents
Understanding Political Parties
• Is the Party Over?
– Political parties are no longer main source of
information for voters; media are
– Yet parties will play an important but diminished
role in American politics
• State and national party organizations have become
more visible and active
• Majority of people still identify with a party
Summary
• Parties are a pervasive linkage institution in
American politics.
– Party in electorate, government, and as
organization
• America has a two-party system.
• The decentralized nature of political parties
makes major change difficult and encourages
individualism in politics.
Nominations and Campaigns
The Nomination Game
• Nomination
– The official endorsement of a candidate for office
by a political party
– Generally, success requires momentum, money,
and media attention.
• Campaign Strategy
– The master game plan candidates lay out to guide
their electoral campaign
The Nomination Game
• Deciding to Run
– Campaigns are more physically and emotionally
taxing than ever.
– American campaigns are much longer.
• Barack Obama made clear his intention to run for
president in January 2007.
• Other countries have short campaigns, generally less
than two months.
The Nomination Game
• Competing for Delegates
– Nomination game is an elimination contest
– Goal is to win a majority of delegates’ support at
the national party convention, or the supreme
power within each of the parties
• The convention meets every four years to nominate the
party’s presidential and vice-presidential candidates.
• Conventions are but a formality today.
The Nomination Game
• Competing for Delegates
– The Caucus Road
• Caucus: meetings of state party leaders for selecting
delegates to the national convention
• Organized like a pyramid from local precincts to the
state’s convention
• A handful of states use a caucus—open to all voters
who are registered with a party
• The Iowa caucus is first and most important.
The Nomination Game
• Competing for Delegates
– The Primary Road
• Primary: elections in which voters in a state vote for a nominee (or
delegates pledged to the nominee)
– Began at turn of 20th century by progressive reformers
– McGovern-Fraser Commission led to selection of delegates through
primary elections
– Most delegates are chosen through primaries.
– Superdelegates: democratic leaders who automatically get a delegate
slot
• Frontloading is the tendency of states to hold primaries early to
capitalize on media attention. New Hampshire is first.
• Generally primaries serve as elimination contests.
The Nomination Game
• Competing for Delegates
– Evaluating the Primary and Caucus System
•
•
•
•
Disproportionate attention to early ones
Prominent politicians do not run.
Money plays too big a role.
Participation in primaries and caucuses is low and
unrepresentative; 20 percent vote in primaries.
• The system gives too much power to the media.
The Nomination Game
The Nomination Game
• The Convention Send-off
– National conventions once provided great drama, but now
are a formality, which means less TV time.
– Significant rallying point for parties
– Key note speaker on first day of Convention
– Party platform: statement of a party’s goals and policies for
next four years
• Debated on the second day of the Convention
– Formal nomination of president and vice-president
candidates on third and fourth days
The Nomination Game
The Campaign Game
• The High-Tech Media Campaign
– Direct mail used to generate support and money
for the candidate
– Get media attention through ad budget and “free”
coverage
– Emphasis on “marketing” a candidate
– News stories focus more on the “horse race” than
substantive policy issues
The Campaign Game
• Organizing the Campaign
– Get a campaign manager
– Get a fund-raiser and campaign counsel
– Hire media and campaign consultants
– Assemble staff and plan logistics
– Get research staff, policy advisors, and pollsters
– Get a good press secretary
– Establish a website
The Campaign Game
Money and Campaigning
• The Maze of Campaign Finance Reforms
– Federal Election Campaign Act (1974)
• Created the Federal Election Commission (FEC) to administer
campaign finance laws for federal elections
• Created the Presidential Election Campaign Fund
• Provided partial public financing for presidential primaries
– Matching funds: Contributions of up to $250 are matched for
candidates who meet conditions, such as limiting spending.
• Provided full public financing for major party candidates in the
general election
• Required full disclosure and limited contributions
Money and Campaigning
• The Maze of Campaign Finance Reforms
– Soft Money: political contributions (not subject to
contribution limits) earmarked for party-building expenses
or generic party advertising
– The McCain-Feingold Act (2002) banned soft money,
increased amount of individual contributions, and limited
“issue ads.”
– 527s: independent groups that seek to influence political
process but are not subject to contribution restricts
because they do not directly seek election of particular
candidates
Money and Campaigning
• The Proliferation of PACs
– Political Action Committees (PACs): created by law in 1974
to allow corporations, labor unions and other interest
groups to donate money to campaigns; PACs are registered
with and monitored by the FEC.
– As of 2006 there were 4,217 PACs.
– PACs contributed over $372.1 million to congressional
candidates in 2006.
– PACs donate to candidates who support their issue.
– PACs do not “buy” candidates, but give to candidates who
support them in the first place.
Money and Campaigning
Money and Campaigning
• Are Campaigns Too Expensive?
– Fundraising takes a lot of time.
– Incumbents do worse when they spend more
money because they need to spend to defeat
quality challengers.
– The doctrine of sufficiency suggests that
candidates need just “enough” money to win, not
necessarily “more.”
The Impact of Campaigns
• Campaigns have three effects on voters:
– Reinforcement, Activation, Conversion
• Several factors weaken campaigns’ impact on voters:
– Selective perception: pay most attention to things we
agree with
– Party identification still influence voting behavior
– Incumbents begin with sizeable advantage
Understanding Nominations
and Campaigns
• Are Nominations and Campaigns Too Democratic?
– Campaigns are open to almost everyone.
– Campaigns consume much time and money.
– Campaigns promote individualism in American politics.
• Do Big Campaigns Lead to an Increased Scope of
Government?
– Candidates make numerous promises, especially to
state and local interests.
– Hard for politicians to promise to cut size of
government
Summary
• Campaigns are media-oriented and expensive.
• Delegates are selected through caucuses and
primaries.
• Money and contributions from PACs regulated by the
FEC are essential to campaigns.
• Campaigns reinforce perceptions but do not change
minds.
Chapter 10
Elections and Voting Behavior
How American Elections Work
• Three types of elections:
– Select party nominees (primary elections)
– Select officeholders (general elections)
– Select options on specific policies
• Referendum: state-level method of direct legislation that gives
voters a chance to approve proposed legislation or constitutional
amendment
• Initiative petition: process permitted in some states whereby
voters may put proposed changes in the state constitution to a
vote, given a sufficient number of signatures
A Tale of Three Elections
• 1800: The First Electoral Transition of Power
– No primaries, no conventions, no speeches
– Newspapers were very partisan.
– Campaigns focused not on voters but on state
legislatures who chose electors.
– After many votes in the House, the office of the
presidency was transferred to Jefferson peacefully.
A Tale of Three Elections
• 1896: A Bitter Fight over Economic Interests
– Democrats’ main issue: unlimited coinage of silver
– William Jennings Bryan won the Democratic Party
nomination with speeches about the virtues of
silver.
– McKinley won the election and the Republicans
regained majority status.
A Tale of Three Elections
• 2004: The Ratification of a Polarizing Presidency
– George W. Bush became the fourth Republican since
McKinley to win a second term.
– The intensity of the election was in part due to the
controversy of the 2000 election.
– The 2004 campaign was characterized by negative
campaigning.
– Leadership of the War on Terrorism and “moral values”
proved to be key issues.
A Tale of Three Elections
Whether to Vote: A Citizen’s
First Choice
• Suffrage: the legal right to vote
– Extended to African Americans by the Fifteenth
Amendment
– Extended to Women by the Nineteenth
Amendment
– Extended to people over 18 years of age by the
Twenty-Sixth Amendment
Whether to Vote: A Citizen’s
First Choice
• U.S. has low voter turnout
– Downs: it is rational to not vote
• Those who see clear differences between parties are likely to vote.
• If indifferent, then one may rationally abstain from voting.
– Political Efficacy: the belief that one’s political participation
really matters
– Civic Duty: the belief that in order to support democratic
government, a citizen should always vote
Whether to Vote: A Citizen’s
First Choice
From Government in America, 13th edition.
Whether to Vote: A Citizen’s
First Choice
• Registering To Vote
– Voter Registration: a system adopted by the states
that requires voters to register well in advance of
the election day
– Registration procedures differ by state.
– Motor Voter Act: passed in 1993, requires states
to permit people to register to vote when they
apply for their driver’s license
Whether to Vote: A Citizen’s
First Choice
• Who Votes?
– Education: More education = more likely to vote.
Most important factor
– Age: Older = more likely to vote
– Race: Caucasian = more likely to vote. BUT, other
ethnicities are higher with comparable education
– Gender: Female = more likely to vote
Whether to Vote: A Citizen’s First
Choice
• Who Votes?
– Marital Status: Married = more likely to vote
– Union Membership: Union member = more likely
to vote
– Traits are cumulative–possessing several adds up
Whether to Vote: A Citizen’s
First Choice
How Americans Vote: Explaining
Citizens’ Decisions
• Mandate Theory of Elections
– The idea that the winning candidate has a
mandate from the people to carry out his or her
platforms and politics
– Politicians like the theory better than political
scientists do.
How Americans Vote: Explaining
Citizens’ Decisions
• Party Identification
– People still generally vote for a party they agree
with.
– With the rise of candidate-centered politics,
parties’ hold on voters declined in the 1960s and
1970s.
– Many more voters make an individual voting
decision and are up for grabs each election, (socalled floating voters).
How Americans Vote: Explaining
Citizens’ Decisions
How Americans Vote: Explaining
Citizens’ Decisions
• Candidate Evaluations: How Americans See
the Candidates
– Candidates want a good visual image.
• Especially on dimensions of integrity, reliability, and
competence
– Personality plays a role in vote choice, especially if
a candidate is perceived to be incompetent or
dishonest.
How Americans Vote: Explaining
Citizens’ Decisions
• Policy Voting
– Basing your vote choice on issue preferences and where
the candidates stand on policy issues
– Policy voting may occur if :
• Voters know where they and the candidates stand on issues and
see differences between candidates
– Unlikely to occur because:
• Candidates can be ambiguous on the issues.
• Media tend to focus on the “horse race” not issues.
– Today candidates are forced to take a clear stand in the
party primaries increasing chances for policy voting.
The Last Battle: The
Electoral College
• Electoral college actually elects the
president—founders wanted him chosen by
the elite of the country
• States choose the electors
• Winner-Take-All system gives bigger emphasis
to more populated states
The Last Battle: The
Electoral College
• How it works today:
– Each state has as many votes as it does Representatives
and Senators.
– Winner of popular vote typically gets all the Electoral
College votes for that state
– Electors meet in December, votes are reported by the vice
president in January
– If no candidate gets a majority (270 votes), the House of
Representatives votes for president, with each state
casting one vote.
The Last Battle: The
Electoral College
Understanding Elections and Voting
Behavior
• Democracy and Elections
– The greater the policy differences between candidates, the
more likely voters will be able to steer government policy
by their choices.
• Unlikely—candidates do not always clarify issues
– Candidates who vow to continue popular policies are more
likely to win elections.
– Retrospective voting: voters cast a vote based on what a
candidate has done for them lately
• Those who feel worse off are likely to vote against incumbents.
• Bad economies make politicians nervous.
Understanding Elections and Voting
Behavior
• Elections and the Scope of Government
– Elections generally support government policies
and power.
– Voters feel they are sending a message to
government to accomplish something
– Thus, the government expands to fill the needs of
the voters.
Summary
• Voters make two basic decisions at election
time:
– Whether to vote
– Who to vote for
• Party identification, candidate evaluations,
and policy positions drive vote choice.
• Elections are fundamental to a democracy.