Chapter 5: Studying Cultures Studying Culltures Nineteenth Century Early Twentieth Century: Development Evolution Reborn (ca. 1940–1970) Anthropology Today: Divisions The Fieldwork Experience Nineteenth Century: Origins Anthropology originated because of contact between Western nations and peoples of other lands. Charles Darwin’s The Origin of Species (1859) had a huge impact on scientific approaches to human culture, including anthropology. Unlineal Evolutionism Unilineal Evolutionism was a 19th c. theory that held that all cultures pass through a similar sequence of stages in their development. It included: 1. 2. The premise that cultural evolution proceeded from “simple” cultures to “complex” cultures. The cultural classification of cultures into stages of development (e.g. “savagery,” “barbarism,” “civilization”); proponents believed this was an objective system, but we must ask by which standard of judgment. Unlineal Evolutionism Unilineal Evolutionism was a flawed theory, but it did establish the comparative method, a key methodology in Anthropology. Unilineal Evolutionism led to the establishment of Anthropology as a separate academic field. Historical Particularism or American Historical Particularism (ca. 1900-1940) Historical Particularism (Historicism or American Historical particularism) was an early twentieth-century approach that challenged evolutionism by emphasizing that each culture is a unique result of its distinctive past, which makes cross-cultural generalizations questionable. Historical Particularism Each culture is unique and must be studied on its own terms. Each culture changes along its own path, depending on the influences that affect it. Historical Particularism Made important contributions to the field of Anthropology including: (1) Challenging the overly speculative schemes of the unilineal evolutionists. (2) Insisting on firsthand fieldwork for reliable data. (3) Developing cultural relativism as essential. (4) Demonstrating that cultural differences and biological differences have little to do with one another. Functionalism Functionalism analyzes cultural elements in terms of their useful effects to individuals or to the persistence of the whole society. British Functionalism (ca.1920-1950) The cultural features of a people should be explained by the functions they perform. Contributions: Importance of fieldwork. Relativism and Holistic perspectives. Evolution Reborn (ca. 1940-1970) Return to cultural evolution. White emphasized importance of technology. Steward emphasized the adaptation to the local environment in making cultures the way they are. Anthropology Today: Divisions Anthropology Today: Divisions Materialism (or Cultural Materialism) holds that the main influence on human ways of life is how people produce and distribute resources from their environment; takes a scientific perspective. Modern materialists are likely to view technology, environment, and culture as having feedback relationships to one another. Anthropology Today: Divisions Postmodernism argues that the methods and ideas of science are culture bound (e.g. Biological emphasis on competition as “natural” vs. based on biologists’ own upbringing in capitalist cultures). Emphasizes how knowledge is produced and how this is related to social power; takes a humanistic approach. Challenges the scientific view by questioning whether anthropologists can be objective because they have culture too, affecting their perceptions. Whose Ethnocentrism? Broadly, anthropologists follow either a “materialist” or “humanistic” approach, but this is an overly simple dichotomy. Often, an anthropologist’s theoretical orientation will depend on her or his interests (e.g. environment, economic systems, long term evolutionary changes or art, mythology, or oral traditions). The Fieldwork Experience Surveys - used to gather specific information from a lot of individuals. Interview - fieldworker elicits responses to prearranged questions. Participant observation - fieldworkers participate in the daily lives of the people they are studying. (working with) Key Informants (or key consultants) who are community members with focal expertise and with whom anthropologists spend extended amounts of time. Limitations of Surveys and Interviews People's descriptions of their values and beliefs are often incomplete. There are discrepancies between statements and behavior. The Fieldwork Experience Developing Rapport or acceptance by the community, is important so that a working relationship is possible. Culture Shock, a feeling of uncertainty and anxiety that an individual experiences when placed in a strange cultural setting, can occur. Recent Issues: Objectivity Is objectivity possible? There are a range of challenges to objectivity in anthropological analysis, particularly by humanists (and postmodernists) who see each fieldwork experience as “situated.” Materialists agree that objectivity is difficult but maintain that reports of similarities, over time, demonstrate core similarities. Recent Issues: Ethics Ethical dilemmas for fieldworkers often arise from differences in one’s access to wealth and power. For these and other reasons, guidelines were created by the AAA and include: (1) Not undertaking or continuing research that will be harmful to the host community. (2) Respecting the wishes of individuals regarding their public identification. Ethical Conduct (continued) (3) Fieldworkers must obtain the informed consent of people before undertaking work. (4) Not exploiting individuals or groups for personal gain. (5) Preserving the integrity of scholarly research and publication. Recent Issues: Globalization and Fieldwork Globalization of academic disciplines has increased scholarly exchanges. Ability of anthropological “subjects” to now study themselves or “us.” Questions of representation about who is best qualified to describe the culture of a people. “Native” anthropologists and “non-native” anthropologists. Increased access to the internet allows for more ethnographic voices/postings of material.