GEOG 101: Day 11
Finishing up Biodiversity; Forestry
Housekeeping Items
 Mid-term assignments are due on Thursday.
 We’ll finish up biodiversity today and then move into
forestry
 Solutions: A Network for Sustainability has designated
next week (the 15th through the 22nd) as Low Impact
Week. They hold their meetings usually every
Wednesday at 1 in Building 356, Room 311. They have
a Facebook page and can also be contacted at …..
 A reminder that the mid-term assignments are due on
Thursday.
 Wikipedia claims that 10-15% of the Earth’s land
surface is in some form of park or protected area, but
that is likely high and often meaningless. Only 1.17% of
the ocean is under some form of protection.
Contact us now for further information:
ARCHELON, the Sea Turtle
Protection Society of Greece
57 Solomou str., GR-104 32 ATHENS,
Greece
Tel./fax: +30 210 5231342
e-mail: volunteers@archelon.gr
Campus Food Initiative Town Hall Meetings: You're Invited!
Please join this facilitated Town Hall Meeting to give further input on what type of food services you'd like to have on campus. Refreshments will be served.
Session #1
Date: Wednesday, February 11
Time: 3 pm to 4 pm
Location: Bldg 300/Royal Arbutus Room
Session #2
Date: Thursday, February 12
Time: 12 noon to 1 pm
Location: Bldg 300/Royal Arbutus Room
See also the National Geographic web site on food issues:
http://education.nationalgeographic.com/education/food-education/?ar_a=1
Table 1. Recorded DFNS Transactions by Country, Conservation Funds Generated, 1987-2010
(Millions US$)[4] – partial list (source: Wikipedia)
Non-US Bilateral
Three-party Swap
US Bilateral Swap
Country
and Multilateral
Total
Funding
Funding
Swap Funding
Argentina
$3.1
$3.1
B
Bangladesh
$8.5
$8.5
Belize
$9.0
$9.0
Bolivia
$3.1
$9.6
$21.8
$34.5
Botswana
$8.3
$8.3
Brazil
$2.2
$2.2
Bulgaria
$16.2
$16.2
Cameroon
$25.0
$25.0
Chile
$18.7
$18.7
Colombia
$12.0
$51.6
$63.6
Costa Rica
$42.9
$43.3
$26.0
$112.2
Dominican
$0.6
$0.6
Republic
Ecuador
$7.4
$10.8
$18.2
Egypt
$29.6
$29.6
El Salvador
$6.0
$55.2
$61.2
Ghana
$1.1
$1.1
Guatemala
$1.4
$24.4
$25.8
Guinea
$0.4
$0.4
Bissau
Honduras
$21.4
$21.4
Indonesia
$30.0
$30.0
Jamaica
$0.4
$37.5
$37.9
Jordan
$45.5
$45.5
Housekeeping Items
 I looked up debt-for-nature swaps. According to Wikipedia,
“[s]ince the first swap occurred between Conservation
International and Bolivia in 1987, many national governments
and conservation organizations have engaged in debt-for-nature
swaps.” As of 2010, these totalled over $1 billion worldwide.
 Today, our topic is forestry and I think I’ll have to leave it to you
to read about the environmental and social impacts of mining.
Canadian mining companies have a fairly bad track record
around the world, and we have a couple of films about that in
the VIU Library – see Defensora, in particular.
 Solutions meetings will now be on Mondays from 11:00 to noon
in Building 356, in Room 311. To contact them see
https://www.facebook.com/viusolutions. E-mail is
solutions@viusu.ca.
Housekeeping Items
 For your assignments, try to follow the APA parenthetical style – see
https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/ and
https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/02/.
 From Purdue OWL:
 “If you are directly quoting from a work, you will need to include the
author, year of publication, and the page number for the reference
(preceded by ‘p.’). Introduce the quotation with a signal phrase that
includes the author's last name followed by the date of publication in
parentheses.
 According to Jones (1998), "Students often had difficulty using APA
style, especially when it was their first time" (p. 199).
Jones (1998) found "students often had difficulty using APA style"
(p. 199); what implications does this have for teachers?
 If the author is not named in a signal phrase, place the author's last
name, the year of publication, and the page number in parentheses
after the quotation, as with the next bullet.
 She stated, "Students often had difficulty using APA style" (Jones,
1998, p. 199), but she did not offer an explanation as to why.
 The site also has info on citing on-line sources as well.
Topics This Week – Forestry and
Mining: Key Industries in B.C.
How many people have family members who or
have been involved in these industries, or who have
themselves been involved?
Why should we care about them in a course on
environmental geography?
What kinds of potential ecological impacts do they
have?
How are they linked into globalization?
Where are the primary markets for wood products
and minerals, including fossil fuels?
Upon completing this chapter, you will be
able to
Describe the basic functional processes of trees
and their role in biogeochemical cycling
Summarize the principal types of forest biomes,
especially those indigenous to Canada
Describe the ecological roles and economic
contributions of forests
Trace the history and scale of forest loss and
identify the current drivers of deforestation
Outline the major methods of harvesting timber
Explain the fundamentals of forest management,
and identify forest management agencies in
Canada and internationally
10-9
Central Case:
Battling over the last big trees at Clayoquot Sound
 1993: The largest act of civil disobedience in Canadian
history
 12,000 Protestors blocked loggers from cutting ancient trees
in Clayoquot Sound on Vancouver Island, British Columbia
(anyone you know involved?), and over 800 were arrested
 Old-growth forests = complex primary forests in which the
trees are at least 150 years old
 Jobs depended on the timber industry
 Iisaak, meaning “respect”, became a guiding principle for
forestry in the area
 Variable retention harvesting = logging selectively to retain
a certain percentage and characteristics of the forest
ecosystem
10-10
The Forest and the Trees
10-12
The Forest and the Trees
 Forests cover about 31% of Earth’s land surface (and used
to cover much more, though a few areas are reverting back)
 Provide habitat, maintain soil, air, and water quality, and
play key roles in biogeochemical cycles
10-13
Trees have several basic requirements
For photosynthesis to occur
 An amenable temperature
(appropriate to the species)
 Air (with CO2)
 Light
 Proper soil (with certain
nutrients)
 Water (some tree species
need more than others)
10-14
Trees have several basic requirements (cont’d)
Macronutrients – required in large amounts
Micronutrients – required in small amounts
Transpiration – water loss from leaf surface,
cools the plant as well as assisting in the
movement of nutrients
Water drawn up through xylem by adhesion
and cohesion (water being sucked out of the
leaf pores by wind, thus creating a vacuum
that enables more water to flow up the trunk
channels)
Useful to plant trees in close proximity to
crops to make water more accessible to crops
10-15
There are three major groups of forest
biomes (ecosystem type that occurs around the globe)
Boreal forest
High-latitude forest
Cold, dry climates with short growing seasons
Temperate forest
Mid-latitude forest (eastern forests or west-coast
rainforests)
Seasonal climate (winter season vs. summer growing
season)
Tropical forest
Equatorial-latitude forest
Wet, tropical climate
10-16
Forests grade into open wooded lands
Drylands:
- Shrublands = wooded
areas covered by shrubs
and occasional taller
trees (e.g. tundra)
- Savannah = open area
fominated by grasses
with widely scattered
trees
- Grasslands = lands
dominated by grasses
and non-woody
vegetation
10-18
Canada is a steward for much of the
world’s forest
Canada has the highest amount of forested
land per capita in the world
More than 50% of Canada’s primary forest
remains more or less intact
10-19
Canada’s forests are varied
 402 million hectares of forested and other wooded land
is 25% of the world’s natural forest. For a fuller
description, see
http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/articles/forestregions.
 Forests of the north:
- Boreal forest (taiga) is the largest forested region of
Canada
- Every province and territory except New Brunswick,
Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island
 Forests of the west:
- Forest regions: Subalpine, montane, coast, Columbia
 Forests of the east:
- Forest regions: Deciduous (Carolinian), Great-LakesSt. Lawrence (mixed deciduous & evergreen), Acadian
(see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_England/Acadian_forests).10-20
Forests are ecologically valuable
One of the richest ecosystems for biodiversity
Structural complexity houses great biodiversity
Some animals adapted for living in canopy,
others specialize on the sub-canopies
Shrubs and groundcover plants of the
understory are home to still more organisms
Fallen leaves and branches called litter, house
still others
Forest edge can be quite different from habitat
in the forest core.
10-21
Different storeys (layers) in the forest
10-22
Trees provide ecosystem services
of value to people
A forest provides many ecosystem
services
Stabilizes soil and prevents erosion
Slows runoff, lessens flooding, purifies water
Stores carbon, releases oxygen, moderates
climate
 Regions that have lost their forest cover –
where are they, and what are they subject
to?
-
10-23
Harvesting Forest Products
10-24
Forest products are economically valued
 Benefits: fuel, shelter,
transportation (ships),
paper
 Helped society achieve a
high standard of living
 Softwood = timber
harvested from coniferous
trees
 Hardwood = timber
harvested from deciduous
trees
 NTFPs = non-timber forest
products such as medicinal,
herbal, decorative and
edible products (e.g. edible
plants, traditional First
Nations plants for healing
and eating, mushrooms,
salal for arrangements,
etc.)
10-25
Timber is harvested by several methods
Clearcutting method – all trees in an area are cut,
leaving only stumps
Most cost-efficient
Greatest impacts on forest ecosystems
Mimics natural disturbances such as fires
Enhances soil erosion and
run-off
10-26
Timber is harvested by several methods (cont’d)
10-27
Timber is harvested by several methods
(cont’d)
Selection systems = only select trees are cut
Single tree selection = widely spaced trees are cut
Group tree selection = small patches of trees are
cut
All methods disturb habitat, but some more than
others
Change forest structure and composition
Increase erosion, siltation, runoff, flooding,
landslides
10-28
Plantation forestry has grown in North America
 Reforestation = planting of trees after logging
 Afforestation = planting of trees where forested
cover has not existed for some time (e.g. Oak
Ridges Moraine on Ontario in ‘30s ‘40s, and ’50s)
 Even-aged trees = all trees are the same age
 Maximum sustainable yield = cutting trees shortly
after they have gone through their fastest stage
of growth, and trees often grow most quickly at
intermediate ages
10-29
Land Conversion and Deforestation
10-30
Land Conversion and Deforestation
Deforestation = the clearing and loss of forests
 People have cleared forests for millennia
 Clearing of land for farming one of the first significant
human environmental impacts
 Alters landscapes and ecosystems (and hence habitat)
10-31
The growth of Canada and the U.S. were
fueled by land clearing and logging
Deforestation propelled growth throughout North
America
Cleared for farming
Then wood used to fuel furnaces of industry
Principal cause of deforestation in Canada was
agriculture; now it’s
logging and mining.
10-32
Housekeeping Items
 We have Pam Shaw with us to briefly answer questions about the
Mt. Arrowsmith Biosphere Reserve.
Housekeeping Items
 Turn in your mid-term assignments.
 More volunteer opportunities:
 Commission on Ecosystem Management of International Union for the
Conservation of Nature has a young professionals network for folks under
35. You will find the TOR of the group at
www.iucn.org/about/union/commissions/cem/cem_work/young_professionals
_network/
 Organizations Henry spoke of: http://www.coterc.org/ and
http://www.anuran.org/extend-your-stay.html.
BACKPACKING WITH A PURPOSE: Step outside of the classroom and
into the real world for a truly immersive cultural experience. Operation
Groundswell is a non-profit organization that runs international volunteering
programs.
If you're into cultural exchange, fulfilling community service, and off-thebeaten path adventure, apply by our early bird deadline on February 26th!
 *A bursary fund is available for all students on six-week programs. Simply ask us for more
information.
 Check out where we go: www.operationgroundswell.com
 Six-week summer placements are open in the following countries and regions:
 Ghana – Global Health
 Middle East – Human Rights
 Southeast Asia – Conservation or Youth Empowerment
 India – Education or Gender Rights
 Guatemala – Fair Trade Justice or Peace & Conflict
 Peru – Health & Wellness or Environment
Housekeeping Items
 We didn’t get to watch the short TED talk on communitybased conservation last week:
(http://www.ted.com/talks/john_kasaona_from_poachers_to_c
aretakers?language=en#).
 Resources on mining in and based from Canada:
 Britannia Beach mine tailings:
(http://www.agf.gov.bc.ca/clad/britannia/background.html)
 Diamond mining in the north – the Canadian Arctic Resources
Committee:
http://www.carc.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=92:diamondsand-sustainable-development&catid=41:mining-and-sustainability&Itemid=153 and
http://geology.com/articles/canada-diamond-mines/
 Canadian companies in Latin America. See the film in the
Library, Defensora: HD 9539 N52 G93 2013
10-35
Agriculture is the major cause of conversion of
forests and grasslands
Agriculture covers more of the planet’s surface
than forest
Principal driver of land conversion today –
examples?
Swidden agriculture = small area of forest cleared
and crops planted
 Sustains only one or two seasons of planting
 Soil depleted quickly
 7 years required to replenish soil in original clearings
to support crops or forests
 is it sustainable? Seems to be a minor culprit
10-36
Livestock graze one-fourth of Earth’s land surface
Most cattle today raised in feedlots, but have
traditionally been raised by grazing on open
rangelands
Grazing can be sustainable if done carefully and
at low intensity
Poorly managed grazing impacts savannah and
grassland ecosystems
Ranchers and environmentalists have joined to
preserve ranchland against development and
urban sprawl
However, some tropical rainforest is being
converted to rangeland or single-crop plantations
10-37
Bad practices and other pressures have
led to deforestation
Deforestation has altered the landscapes and
ecosystems of much or our planet
Forest can be harvested sustainably but it hasn’t
always happened
Impacts are greatest in tropical areas and in
dryland regions
Deforestation also adds carbon dioxide to
atmosphere because forests are carbon sinks
Fastest rates of deforestation are in tropical
rainforests of Latin America, Africa, and to some
degree Asia, affecting species such as orangutans
10-38
Oil Sands Before and After…
Deforestation is proceeding rapidly in many
developing nations
• Uncut primary tropical forests still remain in
many developing countries
• Advanced technology has allowed the
exploitation of resources faster than in the
past (often by foreign multinationals)
• Often these countries impose few or no
restrictions on logging
• Often timber is extracted by foreign
corporations
10-40
weighing
the issues
Logging here or there?
Imagine you are an environmental activist
protesting a logging operation that is cutting
old-growth trees near your hometown. If the
protest is successful, the company will move to
a developing country and cut its primary forest
instead.
 Would you still protest the logging in your
hometown?
 Would you pursue any other approaches?
10-41
Forest Management Principles
10-42
Forest Management Principles
Forestry (silviculture) = a professional field of
managing forests by balancing forests as
ecosystems and as sources of wood products
Harvesting = the removal of material from the
resource
Should not occur at a rate that exceeds the
capability of the resource to replenish or
regenerate itself (‘sustained yield’ – this is the
theory, not necessarily the practice)
10-43
Public forests in Canada are managed
for many purposes
 Canadian Forest Service preserves timber on
federal Crown lands
 Provincial crown land used for timber and nontimber forest products (mainly timber)
 Multiple use = policy where forests are to be
managed for recreation, wildlife habitat, mineral
extraction, and various other uses
 wooded areas covered by shrubs and occasional
taller trees (e.g. tundra)
10-44
Public forests in Canada are managed for many
purposes (cont’d)
 National Forest Strategy for 2003-2008 (couldn’t find a
reference to since 2005; may have been decentralized to
provinces)
 Ecosystem-based management
 Better environmental, social, and economic sustainability
of forest communities through legislation and policies
 Recognizing rights of Aboriginal peoples
 Diversification of markets for forest products
 Better skills and knowledge of forest practitioners
 Engaging Canadians in sustainability through urban
forests
 Support private woodlots for forest sustainability
 National forest reporting system
10-45
Today some managers try to practice ecosystembased management, but still much disagreement
about what it is
Ecosystem-based management = managing
the harvesting of resources to minimize impact
on the ecosystems and ecological processes
Carefully managing ecologically important
areas
Protecting some forested areas
It is challenging for managers to determine how
to implement this type of management
Ecosystems are complex, and our
understanding of how they operate is limited
10-46
Adaptive management evolves and improves
 Adaptive management = systematically testing
different management approaches and aiming to
improve methods based on experimentation
 Monitoring results and adjusting methods as needed
 A fusion of science and management
 Time-consuming and complicated
 A guiding principle for forest management in Canada
 West Arm Demonstration Forest Experiments
 Donna Creek Biodiversity Project
 Grizzly Bear Habitat Project
10-47
Fire is a natural phenomenon in forests
 Many ecosystems
depend on fire
 Ecosystems dependent of
fire are adversely affected
by its suppression
 Ground fires = the litter
layer itself burns, as
opposed to crown fires
 Crown fires = the upper
tree canopy is ignited
10-48
Fire policy has stirred controversy
 For over 100 years, all
forest fires were
suppressed
 But many ecosystems
depend on fires
 Fire suppression allows
woody accumulation,
which produces kindling
for future fires
 Housing development near
forests and climate change
will increase fire risk
10-49
Fire policy has stirred controversy (cont’d)
 Prescribed (controlled) burns = burning areas of forests
under carefully controlled conditions
 Effective
 May get out of control
 Impeded by public
misunderstanding and
political interference
 Should development
allowed in fire-prone
areas?
10-50
Fire policy has stirred controversy (cont’d)
 Removal of dead trees
following a natural disturbance
 Seems logical, but is really
destructive
 Snags (standing dead trees)
provide nesting cavities for
countless animals
 Removing timber from recently
burned areas increases erosion
and soil damage
 Promotes future fires
10-51
Sustainable forestry is gaining ground
 Sustainable forestry certification = only
products produced sustainably can be certified
 International Organization for
Standardization (ISO), Forest Stewardship
Council (FSC) have different standards
 Consumers look for logos to buy sustainably
produced timber
 Companies such as Home Depot sell
sustainable wood as a result of
environmental campaigns
 Encourages better logging practices
10-52
Conclusion
 Forests and other terrestrial biomes provide crucial
ecosystem services that have economic value as
well
 Resources must be managed sustainably to avoid
overexploitation and overharvesting
 There are federal and regional agencies to oversee
and manage publicly held land and natural
resources
 Resource management policies consider sustained
yield, multiple use, timber production, recreation,
wildlife habitat, and ecosystem integrity
 Public support resulted in parks, wilderness areas
and other reserves
10-53