• Fuel Cells
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Hydrogen economy - Fuel cells as alternative to internal combustion
1
Fuel cells are more expensive to produce than
common internal combustion engines
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Hydrogen economy - Fuel cells as alternative to internal combustion
Some types of fuel cells work with
hydrocarbon fuels, while all can be
operated on pure hydrogen. In the event
that fuel cells become price-competitive
with internal combustion engines and
turbines, large gas-fired power plants
could adopt this technology.
1
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Hydrogen economy - Fuel cells as alternative to internal combustion
1
Hydrogen gas must be distinguished as
"technical-grade" (five times pure), which
is suitable for applications such as fuel
cells, and "commercial-grade", which has
carbon- and sulfur-containing impurities,
but which can be produced by the much
cheaper steam-reformation process. Fuel
cells require high-purity hydrogen because
the impurities would quickly degrade the
life of the fuel cell stack.
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Hydrogen economy - Fuel cells as alternative to internal combustion
1
If a practical method of hydrogen storage
is introduced, and fuel cells become
cheaper, they can be economically viable
to power hybrid fuel cell/battery vehicles,
or purely fuel cell-driven ones
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Hydrogen economy - Fuel cells as alternative to internal combustion
1
Other fuel cell technologies based on the
exchange of metal ions (e.g. zinc-air fuel
cells) are typically more efficient at energy
conversion than hydrogen fuel cells, but
the widespread use of any electrical
energy → chemical energy → electrical
energy systems would necessitate the
production of electricity.
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Hydrogen economy - The electrical grid plus synthetic methanol fuel cells
1
Longer term energy storage (meaning the
energy is used weeks or months after
capture) may be better done with synthetic
methane or alcohols, which can be stored
indefinitely at relatively low cost, and even
used directly in some type of fuel cells, for
electric vehicles
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Nafion - Proton exchange membrane (PEM) for fuel cells
1
Fuel cells are expected to find
strong use in the transportation
industry.
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Nafion - Modified Nafion for PEM fuel cells
1
Normal Nafion will dehydrate (thus lose
proton conductivity) when temperature
is above ~80 °C. This limitation troubles
the design of fuel cells, because higher
temperatures are desirable for a better
efficiency and CO tolerance of the
platinum catalyst. Silica and zirconium
phosphate can be incorporated into
Nafion water channels through in situ
chemical reactions to increase the
working temperature to above 100 °C.
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Fuel cell - Types of fuel cells; design
Fuel cells come in many varieties;
however, they all work in the same
general manner. They are made up of
three adjacent segments: the anode, the
electrolyte, and the cathode. Two
chemical reactions occur at the interfaces
of the three different segments. The net
result of the two reactions is that fuel is
consumed, water or carbon dioxide is
created, and an electric current is created,
which can be used to power electrical
devices, normally referred to as the load.
1
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Fuel cell - Types of fuel cells; design
1
At the anode a catalyst oxidizes the fuel,
usually hydrogen, turning the fuel into a
positively charged ion and a negatively
charged electron
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Fuel cell - Types of fuel cells; design
1
The most important design features
in a fuel cell are:
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Fuel cell - Types of fuel cells; design
The electrolyte substance. The electrolyte
substance usually defines the type of fuel cell.
1
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Fuel cell - Types of fuel cells; design
1
The fuel that is used. The
most common fuel is
hydrogen.
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Fuel cell - Types of fuel cells; design
1
The anode catalyst breaks down the fuel
into electrons and ions. The anode
catalyst is usually made up of very fine
platinum powder.
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Fuel cell - Types of fuel cells; design
The cathode catalyst turns the ions
into the waste chemicals like water or
carbon dioxide. The cathode catalyst
is often made up of nickel but it can
also be a nanomaterial-based catalyst.
1
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Fuel cell - Types of fuel cells; design
1
A typical fuel cell produces a voltage
from 0.6 V to 0.7 V at full rated load.
Voltage decreases as current
increases, due to several factors:
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Fuel cell - Types of fuel cells; design
1
Ohmic loss (voltage drop due to resistance of
the cell components and interconnections)
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Fuel cell - Types of fuel cells; design
1
Mass transport loss (depletion of reactants
at catalyst sites under high loads, causing
rapid loss of voltage).
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Fuel cell - Types of fuel cells; design
1
To deliver the desired amount of energy,
the fuel cells can be combined in series
and parallel circuits to yield higher
voltage, and parallel-channel of
configurations allow a higher current to
be supplied. Such a design is called a
fuel cell stack. The cell surface area can
be increased, to allow stronger current
from each cell. In the stack, reactant
gases must be distributed uniformly
over all of the cells to maximize the
power output.
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Fuel cell - Proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs)
In the archetypical hydrogen–oxide
proton exchange membrane fuel cell
design, a proton-conducting polymer
membrane (the electrolyte) separates
the anode and cathode sides. (PEMFC)
efficient frontier This was called a "solid
polymer electrolyte fuel cell" (SPEFC) in
the early 1970s, before the proton
exchange mechanism was wellunderstood. (Notice that the synonyms
"polymer electrolyte membrane" and
"proton exchange mechanism" result in
the same acronym.)
1
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Fuel cell - Proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs)
1
On the anode side, hydrogen diffuses
to the anode catalyst where it later
dissociates into protons and electrons
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Fuel cell - Proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs)
In addition to this pure hydrogen type,
there are hydrocarbon fuels for fuel cells,
including diesel, methanol (see: directmethanol fuel cells and indirect methanol
fuel cells) and chemical hydrides. The
waste products with these types of fuel are
carbon dioxide and water.
1
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Fuel cell - Proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs)
The materials used for
different parts of the fuel
cells differ by type
1
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Fuel cell vehicle - Description and purpose of fuel cells in vehicles
Different types of fuel cells include
PEMFC|polymer electrolyte membrane
(PEM) Fuel Cells, DMFC|direct methanol
fuel cells, phosphoric acid fuel cells,
molten carbonate fuel cells, SOFC|solid
oxide fuel cells, and Regenerative Fuel
Cells.[http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrog
enandfuelcells/fuelcells/fc_types.html
Types of Fuel Cells], U.S
1
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Fuel cell vehicle - Description and purpose of fuel cells in vehicles
and produced over 60% of the carbon
monoxide emissions and about 20% of
greenhouse gas emissions in the United
States.[http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydro
genandfuelcells/fuelcells/transportation.ht
ml Fuel Cells for Transportation], U.S
1
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Fuel-cell - Types of fuel cells; design
1
* The electrolyte substance. The electrolyte
substance usually defines the type of fuel cell.
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Fuel-cell - Types of fuel cells; design
1
* The fuel that is used. The most
common fuel is hydrogen.
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Fuel-cell - Types of fuel cells; design
1
* The anode catalyst breaks down the fuel
into electrons and ions. The anode
catalyst is usually made up of very fine
platinum powder.
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Fuel-cell - Types of fuel cells; design
1
* The cathode catalyst turns the ions
into the waste chemicals like water or
carbon dioxide. The cathode catalyst
is often made up of nickel but it can
also be a nanomaterial-based catalyst.
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Fuel-cell - Types of fuel cells; design
1
* Ohmic loss (voltage drop due to resistance of the
cell components and interconnections)
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Fuel-cell - Types of fuel cells; design
1
* Mass transport loss (depletion of
reactants at catalyst sites under high
loads, causing rapid loss of voltage).
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Fuel-cell - Types of fuel cells; design
1
To deliver the desired amount of energy, the
fuel cells can be combined in series and
parallel circuits to yield higher voltage, and
parallel-channel of configurations allow a
higher Electric current|current to be supplied.
Such a design is called a fuel cell stack. The
cell surface area can be increased, to allow
stronger Electric current|current from each
cell. In the stack, reactant gases must be
distributed uniformly over all of the cells to
maximize the power output.
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Fuel-cell - Proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs)
1
In the archetypical hydrogen–oxide
proton exchange membrane fuel cell
design, a proton-conducting polymer
membrane (the electrolyte) separates
the anode and cathode sides.AnneClaire Dupuis, Progress in Materials
Science, Volume 56, Issue 3, March
2011, pp
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Fuel-cell - Proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs)
In addition to this pure hydrogen type,
there are hydrocarbon fuels for fuel cells,
including diesel fuel|diesel, methanol (see:
direct-methanol fuel cells and indirect
methanol fuel cells) and chemical
hydrides. The waste products with these
types of fuel are carbon dioxide and water.
1
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Fuel-cell - Proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs)
1
fuel cell, Fuel Cells 2008, 08(1): 45–51
The materials used for different parts of
the fuel cells differ by type
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Auxiliary power unit - Fuel cells
In recent years, truck and fuel cell
manufacturers have teamed up to
create, test and demonstrate a fuel cell
APU that eliminates nearly all
emissions and uses diesel fuel more
efficiently
1
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Hydrogen technologies - Fuel cells
1
*Direct carbon fuel cell
(DCFC)
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Hydrogen technologies - Fuel cells
1
*Direct-ethanol fuel cell (DEFC)
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Hydrogen technologies - Fuel cells
1
*Direct methanol fuel cell
(DMFC)
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Hydrogen technologies - Fuel cells
1
*Electro-galvanic fuel
cell (EGFC)
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Hydrogen technologies - Fuel cells
1
*Formic acid fuel cell (FAFC)
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Hydrogen technologies - Fuel cells
1
*Microbial Fuel Cell (MFC)
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Hydrogen technologies - Fuel cells
1
*Phosphoric-acid fuel cell
(PAFC)
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Hydrogen technologies - Fuel cells
1
*Protonic Ceramic Fuel
Cell (PCFC)
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Microfluidics - Fuel cells
1
Microfluidic fuel cells can use laminar flow to
separate the fuel and its oxidant to control the
interaction of the two fluids without a physical
barrier as would be required in conventional
fuel
cells.[http://microfluidics.stanford.edu/fuel_cel
ls.htm Water Management in PEM Fuel Cells]
[http://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/200
505/fuel.cfm Building a Better Fuel Cell Using
Microfluidics][http://www.me.mtu.edu/mnit/
Fuel Cell Initiative at MnIT Microfluidics
Laboratory]
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Framework Programmes for Research and Technological Development - Fuel Cells and
Hydrogen Joint Technology Initiative
1
The next program will be Horizon 2020, the new
framework for Research and Development for the
period 2014–2020.[http://www.hyer.eu/news/eupolicy-news/public-consultation-on-thepreparation-of-the-fuel-cells-and-hydrogen-jointtechnology-initiative-under-horizon-2020-is-nowopen Public consultation on the preparation of the
Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Technology
Initiative under Horizon 2020 is now
open][http://ec.europa.eu/research/consultations/fc
h_h2020/consultation_en.htm Consultation on the
preparation of the Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint
Technology Initiative under Horizon 2020]
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Steam reforming - Advantages of reforming for supplying fuel cells
1
Steam reforming of gaseous hydrocarbons is seen
as a potential way to provide fuel for fuel cells
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Steam reforming - Disadvantages of reforming for supplying fuel cells
1
The reformer-fuel-cell system is still
being researched but in the near term,
systems would continue to run on
existing fuels, such as natural gas or
gasoline or diesel
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Steam reforming - Disadvantages of reforming for supplying fuel cells
The cost of hydrogen production by reforming
fossil fuels depends on the scale at which it is
done, the capital cost of the reformer and the
efficiency of the unit, so that whilst it may cost only
a few dollars per kilogram of hydrogen at industrial
scale, it could be more expensive at the smaller
scale needed for fuel
cells.[http://198.173.87.9/PDF/Doty_H2Price.pdf A
realistic look at hydrogen price projections]
Recently, a Polish company Bioleux Polska has
been advertising renewable hydrogen (RH2)
plasma reformers, producing RH2 at under $2 per
kilogram , and available for lightweight Mobile
Applications using vegetable oil or glycerol as
feedstock.
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1
Steam reforming - Current challenges with reformers supplying fuel cells
1
* The reforming reaction takes place at
high temperatures, making it slow to start
up and requiring costly high temperature
materials.
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Steam reforming - Current challenges with reformers supplying fuel cells
* Sulfur compounds in the fuel will
poison certain catalysts, making it
difficult to run this type of system from
ordinary gasoline. Some new
technologies have overcome this
challenge with sulfur-tolerant catalysts.
1
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Steam reforming - Current challenges with reformers supplying fuel cells
1
* Low temperature polymer fuel cell
membranes can be poisoned by the
carbon monoxide (CO) produced by
the reactor, making it necessary to
include complex CO-removal
systems. Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC)
and molten carbonate fuel cells
(MCFC) do not have this problem, but
operate at higher temperatures,
slowing start-up time, and requiring
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Steam reforming - Current challenges with reformers supplying fuel cells
1
* The thermodynamic efficiency of the
process is between 70% and 85%
(Lower heating value|LHV basis)
depending on the purity of the
hydrogen product.
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Steam reforming - Current challenges with reformers supplying fuel cells
1
A recent development that employs a new
combination of gold and iron oxide can
reduce carbon monoxide levels to 20 parts
per million in the presence of hydrogen
and produce byproducts of carbon dioxide
and water at much lower temperatures
than conventional methods.
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Hydrogen highway (Japan) - Reasons for Japan's investment in fuel cells
1
The two motivations for the research and
development of fuel cells were because of
the energy policy and the industrial policy.
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Hydrogen highway (Japan) - Reasons for Japan's investment in fuel cells
1
** Create/Find a new source of
renewable energy
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Hydrogen highway (Japan) - Reasons for Japan's investment in fuel cells
***
Many countries are seeing how
efficient Fuel Cells are which is why Japan
seeks to expand their investments in the
Fuel Cell industry
1
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Hydrogen highway (Japan) - Reasons for Japan's investment in fuel cells
1
*
Environmental
Issues
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Hydrogen highway (Japan) - Reasons for Japan's investment in fuel cells
1
*** Japan, like the rest of the world,
seeks to reduce green house gas
emissions by using safer forms of
energy
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Hydrogen highway (Japan) - Reasons for Japan's investment in fuel cells
** Maintain a competitive
economy through advanced
technology
1
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Hydrogen highway (Japan) - Reasons for Japan's investment in fuel cells
1
*** Fuel cells are profitable, being
well invested in such and industry will
give Japan an advantage economically
speaking
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Membraneless Fuel Cells
1
In Laminar Flow Fuel Cells (LFFC) this is
achieved by exploiting the phenomenon of
non-mixing laminar flows where the
interface between the two flows works as
a proton/ion conductor
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Membraneless Fuel Cells
1
The efficiency of these cells is generally
much higher than modern electricity
producing sources. For example, a
Fossil fuel power station|fossil fuel
power plant system can achieve a 40%
electrical conversion efficiency while a
nuclear power plant is slightly lower at
32%. Fuel cell systems are capable of
reaching efficiencies in the range of
55%–70%. However, as with any process,
fuel cells also experience inherent
losses due to their design and
manufacturing processes.
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Membraneless Fuel Cells - Overview
1
Hydrogen for fuel cells can be
produced in many ways
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Membraneless Fuel Cells - Overview
1
Direct methanol fuel cell|Direct Methanol
Fuel Cells (DMFC's), for example, use
methanol as the reactant instead of first
using reformation to produce hydrogen
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Membraneless Fuel Cells - Membraneless Fuel Cells and Operating Principles
1
Membraneless fuel cells offer a
solution to these problems.
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Membraneless Fuel Cells - Diffusion
Diffusion across the interface is
extremely important and can severely
affect fuel cell performance. The
protons need to be able to diffuse
across both the fuel and the oxidizing
agent. The diffusion coefficient, a
term which describes the ease of
diffusion of an element in another
medium, can be combined with Fick's
laws of diffusion which addresses the
1
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Membraneless Fuel Cells - Diffusion
1
* J is the diffusion flux in dimensions of
[(amount of substance) length−2 time−1],
example (\tfrac). J measures the amount
of substance that will flow through a small
area during a small time interval.
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Membraneless Fuel Cells - Diffusion
1
* \, D is the 'diffusion coefficient' or 'mass
diffusivity|diffusivity' in dimensions of
[length2 time−1], example (\tfrac)
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Membraneless Fuel Cells - Diffusion
1
* \, \phi (for ideal mixtures) is the
concentration in dimensions of
[(amount of substance) length−3],
example (\tfrac\mathrm)
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Membraneless Fuel Cells - Diffusion
* \, x is the diffusion
length i.e. the distance
over which diffusion
occurs
1
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Membraneless Fuel Cells - Diffusion
1
In order to increase the diffusion flux,
the diffusivity and/or concentration
need to be increased while the length
needs to be decreased
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Membraneless Fuel Cells - Diffusion
1
In many hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells,
the diffusion of oxygen at the cathode
is rate limiting since the diffusivity of
oxygen in water is much lower than
that of hydrogen.Fukada, Satoshi
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Membraneless Fuel Cells - Research and Development
1
Nanoporous Separator and Low Fuel
Concentration to Minimize Crossover
in Direct Methanol Laminar Flow Fuel
Cells
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Membraneless Fuel Cells - Research and Development
Date: January 2010: Researchers
developed a novel method of inducing
self-pumping in a membraneless fuel
cell
1
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Membraneless Fuel Cells - Scaling Issues
1
Transport Phenomena and Interfacial Kinetics in
Planar Microfluidic Membraneless Fuel Cells
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Membraneless Fuel Cells - Scaling Issues
For example, laminar flow is a
necessary condition for these cells.
Without laminar flow, crossover would
occur and a physical electrolytic
membrane would be needed.
Maintaining laminar flow is achievable
on the macro scale but maintaining a
steady Reynolds number is difficult due
to variations in pumping. This variation
causes fluctuations at the reactant
1
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Membraneless Fuel Cells - Scaling Issues
1
For micro fuel cells,
this pumping
requirement
requires high
voltages
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Membraneless Fuel Cells - Scaling Issues
However, self-pumping mechanisms
can be difficult and expensive to
produce on the macro-scale. In order to
take advantage of hydrophobic effects,
the surfaces need to be smooth to
control the contact angle of water. To
produce these surfaces on a large
scale, the cost will significantly
increase due to the close tolerances
which are needed. Also, it is not evident
1
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Membraneless Fuel Cells - Potential Applications of LFFCs
1
However, for portable devices such as cell
phones and laptops, macro fuel cells are
often inefficient due to their space
requirements lower run times
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Glossary of fuel cell terms - Molten-carbonate fuel cells
: Molten-carbonate
fuel cells (MCFCs) are
high-temperature fuel
cells
1
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Enzymatic Biofuel Cells
An 'Enzymatic biofuel cell' is a
specific type of fuel cell that uses
enzymes as a catalyst to oxidize its
fuel, rather than precious metals.
Enzymatic biofuel cells, while
currently confined to research
facilities, are widely prized for the
promise they hold in terms of their
relatively inexpensive components
and fuels, as well as a potential power
1
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Enzymatic Biofuel Cells - Operation
Because sugars and other biofuels
can be grown and harvested on a
massive scale, the fuel for enzymatic
biofuel cells is extremely cheap and
can be found in nearly any part of the
world, thus making it an
extraordinarily attractive option from
a logistics standpoint, and even more
so for those concerned with the
adoption of renewable energy sources
1
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Enzymatic Biofuel Cells - Operation
Finally, completely processing the
complex fuels used in enzymatic biofuel
cells requires a series of different enzymes
for each step of the ‘metabolism’ process;
producing some of the required enzymes
and maintaining them at the required
levels can pose problems.
1
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Enzymatic Biofuel Cells - History
1
Research on the subject did not begin
again until the 1980s after it was realized
that the metallic-catalyst method was not
going to be able to deliver the qualities
desired in a biofuel cell, and since then
work on enzymatic biofuel cells has
revolved around the resolution of the
various problems that plagued earlier
efforts at producing a successful
enzymatic biofuel cell
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Enzymatic Biofuel Cells - History
However, many of
these problems were
resolved in 1998
1
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Enzymatic Biofuel Cells - History
1
One research team took advantage of
the extreme selectivity of the enzymes
to completely remove the barrier
between anode and cathode, which is
an absolute requirement in fuel cells
not of the enzymatic type
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Enzymatic Biofuel Cells - History
1
While enzymatic biofuel cells are not
currently in use outside of the
laboratory, as the technology has
advanced over the past decade nonacademic organizations have shown an
increasing amount of interest in
practical applications for the devices
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UTC Power - Fuel cells for buildings
1
UTC Power’s stationary phosphoric acid
fuel cell product is the PureCell
System|PureCell Model 400
System.http://www.jsonline.com/business/
112222154.html This stationary fuel cell
system provides 400 kilowatts of electricity
and 1.7 million Btu/hour of heat
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UTC Power - Fuel cells for buildings
UTC Power has designed,
manufactured and installed more than
300 stationary fuel cells in 19 countries
on six continents
1
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UTC Power - Fuel cells for buses
The PureMotion Model 120 System is
UTC Power’s zero-emission proton
exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell for
transit
buses.http://www.greencarcongress.com/2
010/07/utc-power-transit-bus-fuel-cellsystem-sets-durability-record.html UTC
Power’s PureMotion Model 120 system is
powering a fleet of transit buses in
Connecticut and California.
1
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UTC Power - Fuel cells for buses
1
On Friday, March 16, 2012, UTC Power
participated in an event hosted by Richard
Blumenthal|Senator Richard Blumenthal
(D-CT) to highlight U.S
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UTC Power - Fuel cells for automobiles
1
UTC Power develops and manufactures
PEM fuel cells for
automobiles.http://fuelcellsworks.com/new
s/2010/03/25/utc-power-fuel-cell-part-ofnew-hybrid-electric-vehicle-on-display-inmunich/ The company has worked with
BMW, Hyundai and Nissan as well as the
U.S. Department of Energy on
development and demonstration
programs.
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Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Technology Initiative
The European 'Fuel Cells and
Hydrogen Joint Technology
Initiative[http://www1.eere.energy.go
v/hydrogenandfuelcells/m/events_de
tail.html?event_id=4573past=true
Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint
Technology Initiative 3rd FCH JU
Stakeholders General
Assembly][http://www.coag.gov.au/r
eports/docs/hydrogen_technology_ro
1
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Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Technology Initiative
The Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint
Technology Initiative is a component of
the Joint Technology Initiatives of the
Seventh Framework Programme of the
European Commission.
1
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Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Technology Initiative - History
1
In May 2003, a European Commission
High Level Group presented a report on
Hydrogen Energy and Fuel Cells — a
vision of our future that recommended
the formation of a technology
partnership between the Commission
and private enterprise for the
development of hydrogen and fuel cell
technologies. The report also
recommended the establishment of a
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Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Technology Initiative - History
In November of the same year, the EC
adopted its European Initiative for Growth
program that established a Hydrogen
economy quick-start project with a budget
of 2.8 billion Euros for the decade 2004
through 2015. The initiative allowed for
possible funding from structural funds and
from the EC's 'Research, Technological
development and Demonstration
Framework Programmes'. The initiative
1
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Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Technology Initiative - History
1
In December 2003, the Commission
facilitated the establishment of a
'European Hydrogen and Fuel Cell
Technology Platform' that sought to
bring together interested partners in a
joint venture that would further what
the High Level Group had envisioned
seven months earlier.
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Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Technology Initiative - History
In March 2005, the 'European
Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technology
Platform' adopted a research agenda
for accelerating the development and
market introduction of fuel cell and
hydrogen technologies within the
European Community. This agenda
called for funding by the EC and
organisations from the public- and
private sectors.
1
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Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Technology Initiative - History
1
On 19 December 2006, the agenda of
the Technology Platform were adopted
by the Council Decision 2006/975/EC
within the EC's Seventh Framework
Programme. The prospect of further
financing from the European
Investment Bank (in particular
through its Risk-Sharing Finance
Facility) had been established in an
earlier decision (2006/971/EC).
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Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Technology Initiative - History
The other proposal was the
establishment up of the 'Fuel Cells
and Hydrogen Joint Technology
Initiative' as called for by the
Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technology
Platform..
1
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Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Technology Initiative - History
1
The Joint Technology Initiative on Fuel
Cells and Hydrogen would accordingly
receive appropriations in the general
budget of the European Union allocated
to those programmes
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Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Technology Initiative - History
The 'Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint
Technology Initiative' was launched on
14 October 2008. during the General
Assembly of Fuel Cells and Hydrogen
Stakeholders. A press release from the
European Hydrogen and Fuel Cell
Technology Platform reiterates an
estimate that the activities of the JTI
will reduce time to market for hydrogen
and fuel cell technologies by between 2
1
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Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Technology Initiative - Membership and structure
The Public-private
partnership|public-private joint
initiative operates under the auspices
of the Directorate-General for
Research (European
Commission)|DG Research of the
European Commission, representing
the European Communities, and
industry..
1
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Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Technology Initiative - Membership and structure
Governance of the 'Fuel Cells and
Hydrogen Joint Technology Initiative' (FCH
JTI) lies with the 'Fuel Cells and Hydrogen
Joint Undertaking'. Members of that body
are the European Community and the 'JTI
Industry Grouping', with the latter being a
not-for-profit organisation which brings the
sector's industrial key players and which is
open to any private legal entity sharing the
objectives of the FCH JTI..
1
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Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Technology Initiative - Membership and structure
1
As of December 2008, the chairman of
the governing board is Gijs van Breda
Vriesman of Royal Dutch Shell|Shell
Hydrogen.
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Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Technology Initiative - Membership and structure
The next program will be Horizon 2020, the
new framework for Research and Development
for the period 20142020.[http://www.hyer.eu/news/eu-policynews/public-consultation-on-the-preparationof-the-fuel-cells-and-hydrogen-jointtechnology-initiative-under-horizon-2020-isnow-open Public consultation on the
preparation of the Fuel Cells and Hydrogen
Joint Technology Initiative under Horizon 2020
is now
open][http://ec.europa.eu/research/consultatio
ns/fch_h2020/consultation_en.htm
Consultation on the preparation of the Fuel
Cells and Hydrogen Joint
Technology Initiative
https://store.theartofservice.com/the-fuel-cells-toolkit.html
under Horizon 2020]
1
Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Technology Initiative - Publications
The Hydrogen and Fuel Cell
Technology Platform publishes a
quarterly newsletter, back-issues of
which used to be available online.
1
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Alkaline Anion Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells - Reactions
In an AAEMFC, the fuel, hydrogen or
methanol, is supplied at the anode and
oxygen through air, and water are
supplied at cathode. Fuel is oxidized at
anode and oxygen is reduced at cathode.
At cathode, oxygen reduction produces
hydroxides ions (OH-) that migrate
through the elctrolyte towards the anode.
At anode, hydroxide ions react with the
fuel to produce water and electrons.
Electrons go through the circuit
producing current.
1
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Alkaline Anion Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells - Reactions
1
Electrochemical reactions when
hydrogen is the fuel
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Alkaline Anion Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells - Comparison with traditional
alkaline fuel cell
The alkaline fuel cell used by NASA in
1960s for Apollo program|Apollo and
Space Shuttle program generated
electricity at nearly 70% efficiency using
aqueous solution of KOH as an electrolyte
1
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Alkaline Anion Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells - Advantages
The most significant advantage of
AAEMFCs is that under alkaline
conditions, electrode reaction kinetics
are much more facile, allowing use of
inexpensive, non-noble metal
catalysts such as nickel for the fuel
electrode and silver, iron
phthalocyanines etc
1
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Alkaline Anion Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells - Challenges
1
The biggest challenge in developing AAEMFCs is
the anion exchange membrane (AEM)
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Alkaline Anion Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells - Challenges
Another challenge is achieving OHion conductivity comparable to H+
conductivity observed in PEMFCs.
Since the diffusion coefficient of OHions is twice less than that of H+ (in
bulk water), a higher concentration of
OH- ions is needed to achieve similar
results, which in turn needs higher ion
exchange capacity of the polymer.
However, high ion exchange capacity
1
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Ballard Power Systems - Retreat from automotive fuel cells
1
However, in late 2007, Ballard pulled out
of the hydrogen vehicle sector of its
business to focus on fuel cells for forklifts
and stationary electrical generation
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Microbial Fuel Cells
1
Electricity generation using membrane
and salt bridge microbial fuel cells,
Water Research, 39 (9), pp1675–86
Since the turn of the 21st century MFCs
have started to find a commercial use
in the treatment of wastewater.
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Microbial Fuel Cells - History
1
In 1931, however, Barnet Cohen drew
more attention to the area when he
created a number of microbial half
fuel cells that, when connected in
series, were capable of producing over
35 volts, though only with a current of
2 milliamps.Cohen, B
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Microbial Fuel Cells - History
1
More work on the subject
came with a study by
DelDuca et al
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Microbial Fuel Cells - History
His work, starting in the early 1980s,
helped build an understanding of how fuel
cells operate, and until his retirement, he
was seen by many as the foremost
authority on the subject.
1
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Microbial Fuel Cells - History
1
It is now known that electricity can be
produced directly from the degradation
of organic matter in a microbial fuel
cell. Like a normal fuel cell, an MFC has
both an anode and a cathode chamber.
The :wikt:anoxic|anoxic anode chamber
is connected internally to the cathode
chamber via an ion exchange
membrane with the circuit completed
by an external wire.
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Microbial Fuel Cells - History
In May 2007, the University of
Queensland, Australia completed its
prototype MFC as a cooperative effort with
Foster's Group|Foster's Brewing
1
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Microbial Fuel Cells - Definition
1
A microbial fuel cell is a device that
converts chemical energy to electrical
energy by the catalytic reaction of
microorganisms.
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Microbial Fuel Cells - Definition
A typical microbial fuel cell consists of
anode and cathode compartments
separated by a cation (positively charged
ion) specific semipermeable
membrane|membrane
1
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Microbial Fuel Cells - Definition
1
More broadly, there are two types of
microbial fuel cell: mediator and
mediator-less microbial fuel cells.
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Microbial Fuel Cells - Mediator microbial fuel cell
Most of the microbial cells are
electrochemically inactive. The electron
transfer from microbial cells to the electrode
is facilitated by mediators such as thionine,
methyl viologen, methyl blue, humic acid,
neutral red and so on.Lithgow, A.M., Romero,
L., Sanchez, I.C., Souto, F.A., and Vega, C.A.
(1986). Interception of electron-transport
chain in bacteria with hydrophilic redox
mediators. J. Chem. Research, (S):178–179.
Most of the mediators available are
expensive and toxic.
1
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Microbial Fuel Cells - Mediator-free microbial fuel cell
1
Mediator-free microbial fuel cells do
not require a mediator but use
electrochemically active bacteria to
transfer electrons to the electrode
(electrons are carried directly from
the bacterial respiratory enzyme to
the electrode)
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Microbial Fuel Cells - Mediator-free microbial fuel cell
Mediator-less microbial fuel cells can,
besides running on wastewater, also
derive energy directly from certain plants
1
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Microbial Fuel Cells - Microbial electrolysis cell
1
A variation of the mediator-less MFC is the
microbial electrolysis cells (MEC)
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Microbial Fuel Cells - Soil-based microbial fuel cell
1
Soil-based microbial fuel cells adhere to
the same basic MFC principles as
described above, whereby soil acts as the
nutrient-rich anodic media, the inoculum,
and the proton-exchange membrane
(PEM). The anode is placed at a certain
depth within the soil, while the cathode
rests on top the soil and is exposed to the
oxygen in the air above it.
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Microbial Fuel Cells - Soil-based microbial fuel cell
1
Soils are naturally teeming with a diverse
consortium of microbes, including the
electrogenic microbes needed for MFCs,
and are full of complex sugars and other
nutrients that have accumulated over
millions of years of plant and animal
material decay
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Microbial Fuel Cells - Phototrophic biofilm microbial fuel cell
1
Phototrophic biofilm MFCs (PBMFCs) are
the ones that make use of anode with a
phototrophic biofilm containing
photosynthetic microorganism like
chlorophyta, cyanophyta etc., since they
could carry out photosynthesis and thus
they act as both producers of organic
metabolites and also as electron donors.
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Microbial Fuel Cells - Phototrophic biofilm microbial fuel cell
A study conducted by Strik et al.
reveals that PBMFCs yield one of the
highest Power density|power
densities and, therefore, show
promise in practical applications.
Researchers face difficulties in
increasing their power density and
long-term performance so as to obtain
a cost-effective MFC.
1
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Microbial Fuel Cells - Phototrophic biofilm microbial fuel cell
The sub-category of phototrophic
microbial fuel cells that use purely
oxygenic photosynthetic material at
the anode are sometimes called
biological photovoltaics|biological
photovoltaic systems.
1
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Microbial Fuel Cells - Electrical generation process
When micro-organisms consume a
substance such as sugar in aerobic
conditions, they produce carbon
dioxide and water. However, when
oxygen is not present, they produce
carbon dioxide, protons, and electrons,
as described below:
1
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Microbial Fuel Cells - Electrical generation process
Microbial fuel cells use inorganic
mediators to tap into the electron
transport chain of cells and channel
electrons produced. The mediator
crosses the outer cell lipid
membranes and bacterial outer
membrane; then, it begins to liberate
electrons from the electron transport
chain that normally would be taken up
by oxygen or other intermediates.
1
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Microbial Fuel Cells - Electrical generation process
1
The now-reduced mediator exits the cell
laden with electrons that it transfers to an
electrode where it deposits them; this
electrode becomes the electro-generic
anode (negatively charged electrode)
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Microbial Fuel Cells - Electrical generation process
1
In a microbial fuel cell operation, the
anode is the terminal electron acceptor
recognized by bacteria in the anodic
chamber
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Microbial Fuel Cells - Electrical generation process
1
A number of mediators have been
suggested for use in microbial fuel
cells. These include natural red,
methylene blue, thionine, or
resorufin.
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Microbial Fuel Cells - Electrical generation process
1
This is the principle behind generating a
flow of electrons from most microorganisms (the organisms capable of
producing an electric current are termed
exoelectrogens). In order to turn this into a
usable supply of electricity, this process
has to be accommodated in a fuel cell. In
order to generate a useful current it is
necessary to create a complete circuit,
and not just transfer electrons to a single
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Microbial Fuel Cells - Electrical generation process
1
The mediator and micro-organism, in this
case yeast, are mixed together in a
solution to which is added a suitable
substrate such as glucose. This mixture is
placed in a sealed chamber to stop
oxygen entering, thus forcing the microorganism to use anaerobic respiration. An
electrode is placed in the solution that will
act as the anode as described previously.
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Microbial Fuel Cells - Electrical generation process
1
In the second chamber of the
MFC is another solution and
electrode
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Microbial Fuel Cells - Electrical generation process
Connecting the two electrodes is a
wire (or other electrically conductive
path, which may include some
electrically powered device such as a
light bulb) and completing the circuit
and connecting the two chambers is a
salt bridge or ion-exchange
membrane. This last feature allows
the protons produced, as described in
Eqt. 1 to pass from the anode chamber
1
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Microbial Fuel Cells - Electrical generation process
1
The reduced mediator carries electrons
from the cell to the electrode. Here the
mediator is oxidized as it deposits the
electrons. These then flow across the wire
to the second electrode, which acts as an
electron sink. From here they pass to an
oxidising material.
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Microbial Fuel Cells - Education
Soil-based microbial fuel cells are
popular educational tools, as they
employ a range of scientific
disciplines (microbiology,
geochemistry, electrical engineering,
etc.), and can be made using
commonly available materials, such
as soils and items from the
refrigerator
1
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Microbial Fuel Cells - Current research practices
Some researchersMenicucci, Joseph
Anthony Jr., Haluk Beyenal, Enrico
Marsili, Raaja Raajan Angathevar
Veluchamy, Goksel Demir, and Zbigniew
Lewandowski, Sustainable Power
Measurement for a Microbial Fuel Cell,
AIChE Annual Meeting 2005, Cincinnati,
USA point out some undesirable
practices, such as recording the
maximum current obtained by the cell
when connecting it to a electrical
resistance|resistance as an indication of
its performance, instead of the steadystate current that is often a degree of
1
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Fuel cells
Fuel cells are different from battery
(electricity)|batteries in that they require a
constant source of fuel and oxygen/air to
sustain the chemical reaction; however,
fuel cells can produce electricity
continually for as long as these inputs are
supplied.
1
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Fuel cells
1
Fuel cells are used for primary and backup
power for commercial, industrial and
residential buildings and in remote or
inaccessible areas
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Fuel cells
How Stuff Works, accessed 4 August
2011 In addition to electricity, fuel
cells produce water, heat and,
depending on the fuel source, very
small amounts of nitrogen dioxide and
other emissions
1
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Fuel cells
The fuel cell market is growing, and
Pike Research has estimated that the
stationary fuel cell market will reach 50
GW by 2020.
1
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Fuel cells - History
In a letter dated October 1838 but
published in the December 1838
edition of The London and Edinburgh
Philosophical Magazine and Journal
of Science, Welsh physicist and
barrister William Robert
Grove|William Grove wrote about the
development of his first crude fuel
cells
1
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Fuel cells - History
1
In 1939, British engineer Francis Thomas Bacon
successfully developed a 5kW stationary fuel cell
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Fuel cells - History
UTC Power was the first company to
manufacture and commercialize a large,
stationary fuel cell system for use as a
co-generation power plant in hospitals,
universities and large office buildings.
UTC Power continues to be the sole
supplier of fuel cells to NASA for use in
space vehicles, having supplied fuel
cells for the Apollo missions, and the
Space Shuttle program, and is
developing fuel cells for cell phone
towers and other applications.
1
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Fuel cells - Proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs)
1
In the archetypical hydrogen–oxide proton
exchange membrane fuel cell design, a
proton-conducting polymer membrane (the
electrolyte) separates the anode and
cathode sides.Anne-Claire Dupuis,
Progress in Materials Science, Volume 56,
Issue 3, March 2011, pp
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Fuel cells - Forklifts
1
A fuel cell forklift (also called a fuel cell lift
truck or a fuel cell forklift) is a fuel cell
powered industrial forklift truck used to lift
and transport materials. Most fuel cells
used for material handling purposes are
powered by PEMFC|PEM fuel cells.
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Fuel cells - Forklifts
1
In 2013 there were over 4,000 fuel cell
forklifts used in material handling in
the
USA,[http://www.fuelcells.org/pdfs/F
uelCellForkliftsGainGround.pdf Fuel
Cell Forklifts Gain Ground] of which
only 500 received funding from United
States Department of Energy|DOE
(2012).[http://www1.eere.energy.gov/
hydrogenandfuelcells/pdfs/iea_hia_fc
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Fuel cells - Forklifts
PEM fuel-cell-powered forklifts
provide significant benefits over both
petroleum and battery powered
forklifts as they produce no local
emissions, can work for a full 8-hour
shift on a single tank of hydrogen, can
be refueled in 3 minutes and have a
lifetime of 8–10 years
1
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Fuel cells - Boats
1
Iceland has committed to converting its
vast fishing fleet to use fuel cells to
provide auxiliary power by 2015 and,
eventually, to provide primary power in its
boats
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Fuel cells - Submarines
The Type 212 submarines of the
German and Italian navies use fuel cells
to remain submerged for weeks without
the need to surface.
1
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Fuel cells - Submarines
1
The system consists of nine PEM fuel cells,
providing between 30kW and 50kW each
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Fuel cells - Research and development
*'August 2005': Georgia Institute of
Technology researchers use triazole to
raise the operating temperature of PEM
fuel cells from below 100°C to over
125°C, claiming this will require less
carbon-monoxide purification of the
hydrogen fuel.
1
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Fuel cells - Research and development
1
*'2008' Monash University, Melbourne uses
Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)|PEDOT as a
cathode.
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Fuel cells - Research and development
1
*'2009' Researchers at the University of
Dayton, in Ohio, show that arrays of
vertically grown carbon nanotubes could
be used as the catalyst in fuel
cells.[http://www.technologyreview.com/en
ergy/22074/?a=f Cheaper fuel cells]
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Fuel cells - Research and development
1
*'2009': tunable nanoporous carbon|YCarbon began to develop a carbidederived-carbon-based ultracapacitor,
which they hoped would lead to fuel cells
with higher energy density.Lane, K
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Fuel cells - Research and development
*'2009': A nickel bisdiphosphinebased catalyst for fuel cells is
demonstrated.[http://www.rsc.org/ch
emistryworld/News/2009/December/
03120902.asp Bio-inspired catalyst
design could rival platinum]
1
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Fuel cells - Research and development
*'2013': British firm
[http://www.acalenergy.co.uk/ ACAL
Energy] develops a fuel cell that it says runs
for 10,000 hours in simulated driving
conditions.[http://www.acalenergy.co.uk/ne
ws/release/acal-energy-system-breaks-the10000-hour-endurance-barrier/en ACAL
Energy System Breaks The 10,000 Hour
Endurance Barrier] It asserts that the cost of
fuel cell construction can be reduced to
$40/kW (roughly $9,000 for 300
HP).[http://www.acalenergy.co.uk/assets/co
mmon/0816_ACAL_Poster_1_Costs_v5.pdf
ACAL poster onhttps://store.theartofservice.com/the-fuel-cells-toolkit.html
Fuel Cell costs and
1
Hydrazine - Fuel cells
1
The Italian catalyst manufacturer Acta
(chemical company)|Acta has proposed
using hydrazine as an alternative to
hydrogen in fuel cells
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Hydrazine - Fuel cells
Hydrazine was used in fuel cells
manufactured by Allis-Chalmers|AllisChalmers Corp., including some that
provided electric power in space satellites
in the 1960s.
1
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Bismuth(III) oxide - Use in Solid-oxide fuel cells (SOFCs)
1
Interest has centred on δ- Bi2O3
as it is principally an ionic
conductor
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Bismuth(III) oxide - Use in Solid-oxide fuel cells (SOFCs)
1
Bi2O3 easily forms solid solutions
with many other metal oxides
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Lithium titanate - Molten carbonate fuel cells
1
Lithium titanate is used as a cathode in layer
one of a double layer cathode for molten
carbonate fuel cells. These fuel cells have
two material layers, layer 1 and layer 2, which
allow for the production of high power molten
carbonate fuel cells that work more efficiently.
EPO: European Patent
http://www.wipo.int/patentscope/search/en/de
tail.jsf?docId=WO1996015561recNum=1max
Rec=office=prevFilter=sortOption=queryStrin
g=tab=PCT+Biblio (accessed April 13, 2012).
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COMSOL Multiphysics - Batteries Fuel Cells Module
1
Electrochemical, heat, and flow simulation
of electrochemical cells. User interfaces
available for lithium-ion battery, lead–acid
battery, and generic batteries. Simulations
can include primary, secondary, and
tertiary-current influence. A common
application for the module is for detailed
electrochemical analysis and subsequent
thermal runaway.
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Malcolm Bricklin - Electric vehicles, fuel cells and hybrid vehicles
1
In the 1990s, Bricklin turned his attention
to the idea of producing environmentally
friendly vehicles. He studied battery
technology and went on to form an electric
vehicle company, marketing an electric
bicycle known as the 'EV Warrior'. The
company went bankrupt in 1997.
https://store.theartofservice.com/the-fuel-cells-toolkit.html
Malcolm Bricklin - Electric vehicles, fuel cells and hybrid vehicles
1
In 1998 Bricklin started EVX, Inc., with the
stated desire to demonstrate the first
commercially viable fuel cell vehicle
system in the United States. Bricklin was
also Chief Executive Officer of a company
called Fuel Cell Companies, Inc., which
also started in 1998. Fuel Cell Companies,
Inc. was acquired by TechSys Inc. of New
Jersey for stock with the declared value of
$1,021,800 in 2001.
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Malcolm Bricklin - Electric vehicles, fuel cells and hybrid vehicles
In September 2007 Malcolm Bricklin
announced that Visionary Vehicles is
developing a new range of vehicles that
will go on sale in 2010. The plug-in hybrid
sedan called the Bricklin EXV-LS will have
a range of 850 miles and will be priced at
$35,000.[http://www.calcars.org/carmakers
.html How Carmakers Are Responding to
the Plug-In Hybrid Opportunity]
1
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Water gas shift reaction - Fuel cells
1
With the high demand for clean fuel and
the critical role of the water gas shift
reaction in hydrogen fuel cells, the
development of water gas shift catalysts
for the application in fuel cell technology is
an area of current research interest.
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Water gas shift reaction - Fuel cells
1
Catalysts for fuel cell application would need to
operate at low temperatures
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Air-independent propulsion - Fuel cells
Siemens AG|Siemens has
developed a 30-50 kilowatt Fuel
cells|fuel cell unit
1
https://store.theartofservice.com/the-fuel-cells-toolkit.html
Air-independent propulsion - Fuel cells
After the success of Howaldtswerke
Deutsche Werft AG's in its export
activities, several builders have developed
their own fuel-cell auxiliary units for
submarines but as of 2008 no other
shipyard has a contract for a submarine so
equipped.
1
https://store.theartofservice.com/the-fuel-cells-toolkit.html
Air-independent propulsion - Fuel cells
1
The AIP implemented on the S-80 class
of the Spanish Navy is based on a
bioethanol-processor (provided by
Hynergreen from Abengoa, SA)
consisting of a reaction chamber and
several intermediate Coprox reactors,
that will transform the BioEtOH into
high purity hydrogen. The output feeds
a series of fuel cells from UTC Power
company (which also supplied fuel
https://store.theartofservice.com/the-fuel-cells-toolkit.html
Air-independent propulsion - Fuel cells
1
The reformator is fed with bioethanol
as fuel, and oxygen (stored as a liquid
in a high pressure cryogenic tank),
generating hydrogen as a sub-product.
The produced hydrogen and more
oxygen is fed to the fuel cells.
https://store.theartofservice.com/the-fuel-cells-toolkit.html
Air-independent propulsion - Fuel cells
1
[http://www.armada.mde.es/Armada
Portal/page/Portal/armadaEspannola
/buques_unidades/01_Submarino-S80--05_capacidades_es Spanish Armed
Forces web portal page for S-80
submarine]
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Air-independent propulsion - Fuel cells
In November 2014 it was reported that
India has developed a new Fuel cell based
AIP system which will be tested in March
2015.
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