Literary Terms
Prologue
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An introduction most frequently associated
with drama. Prologues were frequently
written by the author of a play and
delivered by one of the chief actors
Chorus
Often recited by a single actor
 Foreshadows & comments on future/past
events
 Background information
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Pun
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Or
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Word play that suggests two or more meanings for the same word
Homonyms/homophones are commonly used as puns
A figure of speech demonstrating a deliberate confusion of similar
words or phrases for rhetorical effect
Examples: There was once a cross-eyed teacher who couldn’t control
his pupils.
Police were called to a day-care where a three-year-old was resisting a
rest.
I couldn’t quite remember how to throw a boomerang, but eventually it
came back to me.
When the boss sold the carnival, he said it was a fair deal.
“A trade sire, which is… indeed… a mender of bad soles.”
Stage Directions
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Material that an author adds to a text to
indicate movement, attitude, manner,
style, or quality of speech, character, or
action
Genre
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type/category of literary works based on
form, technique or subject matter.
Drama
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the realistic portrayal of serious events; a
story told in action by actors who
impersonate the characters. (play)
Comedy
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a lighter, with humor, form of drama that
aims primarily to amuse (tells
anecdotes/stories), and usually is marked
by a happy ending. (marriages)
Tragedy
a type of play that ends/results in an
unfavorable and unhappy
ending/catastrophe and is treated with
seriousness and dignity
 A play about a character’s downfall
 Main character(s) may end up dead or
defeated
 Catastrophe/suffering awaits many of the
characters, especially the hero
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Connotation vs. Denotation
Connotation: the emotional association of
a word (negative or positive)
 Denotation: the definition/meaning of the
word, without emotional associations
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Figurative
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not literal (i.e. metaphors)
Tone
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attitude of the speaker/author towards the
subject, characters, or audience
Mood
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the emotion a text evokes in the reader
Conflict
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interplay between two opposing forces.
Two types:
1) internal- a struggle between two elements within one
character
Ex. man vs self
(mental/emotional/psychological/spiritual)
2) external- a struggle between a character and an
outside force
Ex.
man vs man
man vs nature
man vs society
man vs. Fate
Soliloquy
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An extended speech delivered while the
speaker is alone, in order to inform the
audience of what is passing in the
character’s mind (his/her inner thoughts or
what the speaker is thinking inwardly, with
the audience as listeners)
Monologue
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An extended speech delivered by a single
speaker to listeners (another character or
crowd) onstage, but the listeners do not
speak
Dialogue
A conversation between two or more
characters
 Often serves to advance the action, give
the impression of naturalness, present the
interplay of ideas and personalities among
those conversing, and/or give relief from
descriptive/expository passages
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Aside
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when an actor directly addresses the
audience, or another character, but is not
supposed to be heard by other actors
onstage (usually shorter than a
monologue/soliloquy)
Dramatic Irony
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the words or acts of a character carry
meaning unperceived by the character or
other characters but are understood by
the audience (the audience/reader knows
something that some of the characters are
blind to)
Irony
Portrays the difference between appearance &
reality, expectation & result, or meaning &
intention
 Verbal irony: words are used to convey the
opposite of what is meant
 Situational irony: an action or event directly
contradicts the expectations of the characters,
the reader, or the audience
 Dramatic irony: a contradiction between what a
character thinks and what the reader/audience
knows to be true (when the reader/audience
knows something that the character does not)
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Oxymoron
a self-contradictory combination/pair of
words
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Ex. jumbo shrimp
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Metaphor
A comparison without the use of the
words “like” or “as”
 Example: She is a rose.
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Simile
A comparison using the word “like” or “as”
 Example: She is as beautiful as a rose.
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Personification
An object/animal is given human qualities,
such as human thoughts, feelings,
attitudes, & characteristics/personalities
 From the Latin root “per” = through
 Example: The sun smiled down on us.
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Hyperbole
Extreme exaggeration for effect (not to be
taken literally)
 Example: I am so hungry, I could eat a
cow!
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Apostrophe
Someone (absent, dead, nonexistent/
imaginary, or unspecified), some abstract
quality/idea, or some personified thing is
addressed (spoken to) as though actually
present
 Examples: “O, pardon me, thou bleeding
piece of earth,” “Oh Sinner!”
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Allusion
A reference to a historical or literary figure, text,
event, object, work of art, etc. outside of the
literary work
 Often well known (something the author
assumes the reader is likely to be familiar with)
 It is up to the reader to make the connection
 Common allusions are to the Bible, Shakespeare,
mythology, politics, or current events
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Elision
Omitting a syllable or sound in a word to make it easier
to say or pronounce or to ensure rhythm/maintain meter
in poetry/create pleasant sounds
 From the Latin “elidere” = to strike out
 Usually runs two words together by the omission of the
final or initial sounds
 Common uses: laboratory, temperature, vegetable
 Shortened syllable count for poetry: ‘tis (instead of it is)
‘twas (instead of it was)
 Slang: gonna, dunno
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Syncope
Omitting letters within a word (the interior
of a word) to omit sounds/syllables
 Examples: o’er=over, n’er=never
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Apocope
Omitting the end of a word to make it
easier to say
 Examples: abs=abdominal muscles,
ad=advertisement, bio=biology,
decaf=decaffeinated,
demo=demonstrated, limo=limousine
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Prose
From the Greek “prosa,” meaning
straightforward
 Ordinary speech (not poetic)
 Paragraph form
 No formal meter/rhyme
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Verse
Poetic
 Meter & rhyme
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Scansion
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A close, critical reading of a poem,
examining the work for its meter & the
relevance of its meter
Meter
Natural rhythm of a poem
 Syllabic pattern (arrangement of syllables
in repeated patterns)
 Basic unit in the description of the
underlying rhythm of a poem
 unit=metrical foot (measured by
syllables, not words; a foot can consist of
multiple words, & a word can consist of
multiple feet)
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Blank Verse
Shakespeare’s poetry in unrhymed iambic
pentameter
 Same letters/end rhyme
 plays
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Iambic Pentameter
A line of poetry that has 10 syllables (5
metric feet)
 2 syllables = 1 foot
 Iamb = a metric foot with two syllables,
first unstressed & second stressed (most
natural form of rhythm in the English
language, usually producing a subtle but
stable verse)
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Paralepsis
Emphasizing a point by seeming to skip
over it, which brings what’s being omitted
to the forefront of people’s consciousness
 Example: “Have patience, gentle friends, I
must not read it. / It is not meet you know
how Caesar loved you.”
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Eulogy
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A dignified, formal speech or writing that
praises a person/thing that is typically
deceased
Metonymy
Substitution of the name of an object
closely associated with a word for the
word itself
 Example: crown = monarchy
 Example: suits = FBI/CIA agents
 Example: force = police
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Synecdoche
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Using a part to represent the whole
Examples: a new set of wheels, “lend me your
ears,” mouths to feed, give me a hand
A specific kind used to refer to a more general
kind
Examples: Kleenex, Coke
A material used to refer to an object composed
of that material
Examples: plastic, pigskin, threads
Theme
The main idea/central
concept/topic/message of a literary work
 Usually requires a subject & a predicate
 Example: “the vanity of human wishes”
instead of “human wishes”
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Symbol
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Something that is itself & also represents
something else (suggests another level of
meaning)
Characterization
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The process by which an author reveals information
about a character; methods the author uses to develop
the personality of a character;
- what the narrator/other characters say/think about (or
respond to) the character
- what the character says/thinks
- what the character does
- what the character looks like
Direct: often a sign of poor writing, telling (not showing,
e.g. He was a dimwitted man.)
Indirect: showing (not telling) often inferred through
action
Types of Characters
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Round=complex (not always the good guy), fully developed both
physically & emotionally, usually the main character that develops
over the course of the story
Flat=one-dimensional, undeveloped, often unrealistic, lack
complexity (not necessarily a sign of poor writing)
Dynamic=round, continuously change & evolve, often grows
significantly & learns to be a better person (but can go the other
way)
Static=can be round or flat, does not change, essentially remains
the same over the course of the story
Protagonist=the main character/hero, the character the reader is
supposed to root for, can be more than one character
Antagonist=character that is in opposition to & works against the
protagonist, doesn’t have to be a person (e.g. setting or situation)
Archetype
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An image, descriptive detail, plot pattern, situation, symbol, or
character type that occurs frequently in literature, myth, religion,
folklore, etc.
Examples: the hero, the quest, the journey, the task, the fall, the
flood, death & rebirth, the devil figure, he unfaithful wife, the
scapegoat (death in public ceremony expiates community’s sin), the
outcast (banished from social group for some crime), the temptress
(sensuous & beautiful, attracts protagonist & brings about his
downfall), the earth mother (symbol of fruition/abundance/fertility,
offering spiritual/emotional nourishment), the Platonic ideal
(spiritual ideal, source of inspiration, idealized by protagonist who
has intellectual attachment to her), the sorrowing mother (loses
children, intense grief), light-darkness (light=hope/renewal/spiritual
illumination, darkness=unknown/ignorance/despair), water-desert
(water=birth/rebirth/regeneration, desert=spiritual sterility),
heaven-hell (skies & mountains=gods, bowels of earth=diabolical
forces)
Setting
The location, time, social circumstances in
which story takes place
 Often contributes to the mood of the story
 General setting: overall location & time
period
 Immediate setting: particular time & place
within a story (similar to scene)
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Foreshadowing
The presentation of material in a text in
such a way that later events are prepared
for (prepares the reader for future action)
 Establishment of mood/atmosphere
 Appearance of objects/facts as clues
 The revelation of a fundamental character
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Onomatopoeia
The use of a word that suggests its
meaning (sounds like what it means)
 Examples: buzz, clang
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Motif
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A recurring image, word, object, phrase,
or action that unifies the text
Bildungsroman
Coming of age story
 About growing up
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Literal Language
Exact in meaning
 Not exaggerated
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Figurative Language
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Language that is not exact in meaning
Not to be taken literally
Means more than what it says on the surface
Gives a feeling about a subject
Makes meaning fresh/clearer
Expresses complexity
Extends meaning
Captures physical or sensory effect
Concrete Language
Sensory words
 Objects/events available to the five senses
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Abstract Language
Ideas
 Concepts
 Not physical
 Can’t be perceived via 5 senses
 Examples: war, love, freedom, success
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Detail
Part of an effective description
 Breaks down elements of description to
elaborate on each part
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Juxtaposition
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The placing of two things close together
or side by side for the sake of
comparison/contrast
Point of View
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The related experience of the narrator (not the author!)
Texts often encourage the reader to identify with the narrator, not the author
Can occur in 1st, 2nd, or 3rd person
1st person: narrator is a character that is part of the story, & narrative is limited by
what the narrator knows/experiences/infers/discovers, used frequently, sacrifices
omniscience for greater intimacy with one character, uses “I”/”We,” narrator can be
the protagonist or someone close to the protagonist who is privy to the protagonist’s
thoughts/actions or an ancillary character who has little to do with the action of the
stpry
2nd person: main character is referred to with 2nd person personal pronouns (such as
“you”), rare, difficult to take seriously, usually paired with present tense
3rd person: narrator is outside the action
Omniscient: narrator is all-knowing, knows everything that needs to be known
including all characters’ thoughts/feelings/motives
Limited: narrator stays within the confines of what one knows/sees (only a part of
the whole story), reader only gets the narrator’s biased perspective
3rd person omniscient: most common prior to 20th century
3rd person limited: most common during 20th & 21st centuries
Paradox
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A statement/idea that appears
false/contradictory/absurd but actually is
true
Imagery
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Descriptive language that evokes a sensory experience (sight, smell,
taste, touch, sound); visual is most common
Visual imagery = sight is most common (Example: The crimson
liquid spilled from the container and onto the white page.)
Auditory imagery = sound (Example: The bells chimed.)
Olfactory imagery = smell (Example: His socks, still soaked with
sweat from Tuesday’s P.E. class, filled the classroom with an aroma
akin to salty, rotting fish.)
Gustatory imagery = taste (Example: When I was swimming in the
ocean, I accidentally took a gulp of briny, bitter liquid, causing me
to cough and gag.)
Tactile imagery = touch (Example: The soft play-dough oozed
between Connor’s fingers.)
Catharsis
Emotional relief/purification/purging /clarification
that an audience was supposed to experience
upon viewing a Greek tragedy
 In drama, refers to a sudden emotional climax
that evokes overwhelming sorrow, pity, laughter,
or any other extreme change in emotion,
resulting in restoration, renewal, and
revitalization in audience members
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Cacophony
A combination of harsh & unpleasant
sounds
 Often caused by consonance
 Used in both poetry & prose to convey
angry/discordant tone/feeling
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Euphony
A combination of pleasant sounds
 Often created through assonance
 Used in both poetry & prose
 Common in love poems or pieces that
want to convey soft & pleasant feelings
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Alliteration
Repetition of initial consonant sounds or
any vowel sounds in successive or closely
associated syllables
 Example: “fiery flood of fierceness”
 Example: Peter Piper picked a peck of
pickled peppers
 Example: killer cat
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Assonance
Repetition of vowel sounds within
successive or closely associated words
 Does not need to happen at the beginning
of words
 Can create a soft fluency in sound and
internal rhyme
 Example: “on a proud round cloud in a
white high night”
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Consonance
Repetition of consonant sounds within
words, rather than at the beginning
 Example: All mammals named Pam are
clammy.
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Anaphora
Repetition of words/phrases/clauses at the
beginning of successive or closely
associated lines/sentences
 Common in speeches
 Used for emphasis
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Epistrophe/Antistrophe
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Repetition of words/phrases/clauses at the
end of successive or closely associated
lines/sentences
Parallelism
When several elements of equal
importance are expressed in a sentence
 The same pattern of words show two or
more clauses/ideas have the same level of
importance; the repetition of
words/grammatical structures/phrases,
etc.
 Parallel sentence constructions
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Inversion/Anastrophe
Words placed out of normal English order,
often to accommodate the metrical
pattern & maintain the regular
meter/rhythm/rhyme; the placing of
sentence elements out of their normal
positions
 Think Yoda!
 Example: “Worried, I am. Afraid, is he.”
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Rhetorical Question
A question asked for effect
 Does not require a reply
 From the root “retro” = backwards
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End Rhyme
Rhyming words at the end of lines
 Example: been & sin
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Internal Rhyme
Rhyme occurs at some place before the
last syllable in a line
 Example: Here I am, an old man in a dry…
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Slant/Half Rhyme
Near rhyme
 Partial rhyme
 Imperfect rhyme
 Examples: Dry & died, devil & evil, grown
& moon
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Plot: sequence of events in a text
Exposition
Part of the work that introduces the
characters, setting, events, basic situation,
background information, etc.
 The “set up”
 Provides clarity for future plot
 Usually best when done indirectly
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Inciting Action
The introduction of the central conflict
 Lets readers know what the protagonist is
up against
 Hints at circumstances of climax
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Development/Rising Action
Development: conflict increases
 Rising action: events that lead up to the
climax, complication of the action, begins
with exciting force (which starts the
conflict), gains interest & power as
oppositions come into conflict, proceeds to
climax
 Events that push the story forward
 Adds tension to the plot
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Climax
The height of suspense/interest
 Turning point
 Point at which conflict reaches its highest
point
 The “big battle” (can be external or
internal)
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Falling Action
Events after the climax that lead to the
resolution
 Not always necessary/apparent
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Resolution
The end of the central conflict/tension
 May tie up loose ends
 Not always happy
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Denouement
Any events that occur after the resolution
 May tie up loose ends
 Not always happy
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Diction
Word choice
 Formal diction: elevated & dignified, often
complex & impersonal, follows grammar rules
 Middle diction: maintains correct language but
less elevated, reflects how most educated
people speak
 Informal Diction: plain language of everyday
use, includes slang, idioms, & common words
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Syntax
Sentence structure; arrangement of words
 Even with formal diction, a lack of variety
or overly simplistic syntax can lower the
level of language in an essay (compound,
complex sentences vs. short, choppy
sentences)
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Stoicism
Philosophical belief began 3rd century B.C. by founder
Zeno & lasted for 500 years
 Belief in self-control, little expression of emotion, & a
denial of passion
 From Greek for "painted portico" in Athens where the
group met and talked
 Zeno: one's duty was to behave in a rational & calm
manner and not let emotion cloud thinking
 Acceptance of what happened as part of the law of
nature.
 Seems bleak & rigid today but popular in Greece
 During the Roman Empire, emphasis on social duty, the
importance of the law, & equal rights for all
 Brutus
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Epicureanism
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Epicurus=Greek philosopher who lived from 341 B.C. to
270 B.C.; believed life best understood by awareness of
sensory perceptions
Belief that the most important goal was to seek pleasure
& avoid pain.
Did not believe in fearing gods because there was no life
after death
Epicurus didn’t acknowledge power of supernatural omens, dreams, & other portents so would not have
assigned much importance to Calpurnia's dream
Influenced modern hedonism (some same tenets)
Ecphonesis
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Emotional, exclamatory phrase; call out/express
sudden emotion
In drama, poetry, song
Rhetorical device in ancient literature
Greek in origin
“O” often used but not necessary
- To Renaissance audience, “O” literally meant
one’s heart was bleeding
- “O” sounds = distraught emotional state &
serious health concern
Examples: “O, the times!”
Anadiplosis
“Doubling back”
 Repetition of last word of a preceding
clause
 Word used at end of sentence & used
again at beginning of next sentence
 Example: “Fear leads to anger. Anger
leads to hate. Hate leads to suffering.”
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Asyndeton
From the Greek “unconnected”
 Deliberate omission of conjunctions from a
series of related clauses
 Speeds up the rhythm to make more
memorable
 Examples: “I came, I saw, I conquered.”
“government of the people, by the people,
for the people” “Friends, Romans,
Countrymen”
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Chiasmus
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“to shape like the letter x”
Two or more clauses are related to each other through a
reversal of structures in order to make a larger point
Criss-cross structure
Inverted parallelism
Popular in Greek & Roman texts
Example: “He knowingly led, and we followed blindly.”
A
B
A B
subject, adverb, verb, conjunction (cross) subject, verb,
adverb
Antithesis
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From Greek for “setting opposition”
A counter proposition
Denotes a direct contrast to the original proposition
Setting the opposite brings out a contrast in meaning by
obvious contrast in expression
Examples: “Many are called, but few are chosen.”
“Give every man thy ear but few thy voice.”
“Man proposes, God disposes.”
In literary fiction, can describe a character who presents
the exact opposite (personality type/moral outlook) to
another character, e.g. Voldemort & Dumbledore