Chapter Six
Individuals With Intellectual Disabilities
• The AAIDD, founded in 1876, has amended its
definition of mental retardation several times over the
decades. In 1987, the American Association of Mental
Deficiency (AAMD) changed its name to the American
Association on Mental Retardation (AAMR). In 2007,
the Association changed its name to the American
Association on Intellectual and Developmental
Disabilities (AAIDD) which is consistent with European
and Canadian terminology. The U.S. Department of
Education uses the term mental retardation and both
are used interchangeably in this textbook
Defining Intellectual Disability:
An Evolving Process
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1961 AAIDD Definition
1973 AAIDD Definition
1983 AAIDD Definition
1992 AAIDD Definition
2002 AAIDD Definition
2010 AAIDD Definition
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Defining Intellectual Disability
1961 AAIDD definition
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“Subaverage general intellectual functioning which
originates during the developmental period and is
associated with impairments in adaptive behavior.”
1973 AAIDD definition
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“Significantly subaverage general intellectual functioning
existing concurrently with deficits in adaptive behavior, and
manifested during the developmental period.
1983 AAIDD definition
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“Significantly subaverage general intellectual functioning
resulting in or associated with concurrent impairment in
adaptive behavior and manifested during the
developmental period.”
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Defining Intellectual Disability
1992 AAIDD definition
• “Significantly subaverage intellectual functioning, existing
concurrently with related limitations in two or more of the
following applicable adaptive skill areas: communication, selfcare, home living, social skills, community use, self-direction,
health and safety, functional academics, leisure, and work.
Mental retardation manifests before age 18.”
‒ It portrays intellectual disability as a relationship among
three key elements: the individual, the environment, and the
type of support required for maximum functioning in various
settings.
‒ It stresses functioning in one’s community rather than just
focusing on the clinical aspect of the individual such as IQ
score or adaptive behavior.
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Defining Intellectual Disability
2002 AAIDD definition
• “Mental retardation is a disability characterized by
significant limitations both in intellectual
functioning and in adaptive behavior as expressed
in conceptual, social, and practical adaptive skills.
This disability originates before age 18.”
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Defining Intellectual Disability
2002 AAIDD definition continued
• Limitations in present functioning must be
considered within the context of community
environments typical of the individual’s age, peers,
and culture.
• With appropriate personalized supports over a
sustained period, the life functioning of the person
with an intellectual disability will generally improve.
Defining Intellectual Disability
2010 AAIDD definition
• The term mental retardation is replaced by the more
contemporary label, intellectual disabilities.
• Developed by a committee of eighteen medical and legal
scholars as well as policymakers, educators, and other
professionals, the 2010 definition emphasizes the abilities
and assets of individuals with intellectual disabilities rather
than their deficits or limitations.
• Intellectual disabilities are viewed as a state of functioning
rather than an inherent trait. As in earlier definitions, one of
the goals of the 2010 definition is to maximize support
services so as to allow persons with intellectual disabilities to
participate fully in all aspects of daily life.
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Assessing Intellectual Ability
Assessment tools:
• Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children
(4th ed., WISC-IV)
• Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale (5th ed.)
Potential problems:
• Potential for cultural bias
• Flexibility of IQ scores
• Overemphasis on IQ score
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Assessing Adaptive Behavior
Adaptive behavior is seen as “the degree to which,
and the efficiency with which, the individual
meets the standards of maturation, learning,
personal independence, and/or social
responsibility that are expected for his or her age
level and cultural group.”
(Grossman, 1983, p. 11)
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Assessing Adaptive Behavior
• Considers the context of the individual’s environment and
cultural influences. Skill areas in which most people
participate: communication, self-care, home living, social
skills, community use, self-direction, health and safety,
functional academics, leisure, and work
Assessment Tools:
• AAMR Adaptive Behavior Scale-School
• AAMR Adaptive Behavior Scale-Residential and Community
• AAIDD Diagnostic Adaptive Behavior Scale being developed
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Classification of Individuals With Intellectual
Disabilities
Etiological perspective- consequence of disease
processes or biological defects
• Intellectual deficits- classification based on IQ
score
• Educational perspective- use of outdated terms
to distinguish a children’s level of ability to learn
academic or employment skills
• Levels of supports- definitions have shifted to an
emphasis on the level of supports that an
individual needs rather than IQ score
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Brief History of the Field
– Early Civilizations
• Early civilizations such as the Greek and Roman empires
valued physical and mental strength and were reported
to practice infanticide with children thought to be
defective.
– The Middle Ages
• The social force of religion brought a more charitable
view of disability into vogue and churches established
asylums for the “children of God.” Fear and
superstition were rampant and people with intellectual
disabilities were often thought to possess demonic
powers from Satan.
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• Early optimism (early nineteenth century)
Itard and Seguin (educators mid 1800’s ) brought
European ideas to America regarding the
education of people with intellectual disabilities.
In 1876, the Association of Medical Officers of
American Institutions for Idiotic and Feebleminded Persons was established
– Protection and pessimism (late nineteenth and early
twentieth centuries)
• This era witnessed the American development of large, isolated
institutions designed to segregate people with intellectual
disabilities. The understaffed institutions focused on custodial
care rather than education and training. The deinstitutionalization
movement began in the 1970s to move people with intellectual
disabilities into the community.
– Emergence of public education for students with
intellectual disability
• In the early part of the twentieth century, schools were developed
for students with intellectual disability although they were often
isolated and segregated. Classes were generally available to
students who were considered higher functioning and did not
provide services for students with severe intellectual disability.
Legislation and professional opinion has shifted toward less
restrictive and more integrated educational placements for
students with intellectual disability.
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Prevalence of Intellectual Disabilities
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Over 431,000 students between the ages of 6-21
were identified as having intellectual disabilities
during the 2011-2012 school year.
These students represent approximately 7% of all
pupils with disabilities and less than 1% of the total
school age population.
• The number of students identified as having
intellectual disabilities has decreased over the years.
• Majority of those identified have mild intellectual
disability
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Etiology of Intellectual Disabilities
Prenatal (before birth)
– Chromosomal, metabolic and nutritional
disorders, maternal infections, environmental
factors, unknown influences
Perinatal (during birth)
– Gestational disorders, neonatal complications
Postnatal (after birth)
– Infections and intoxicants, environmental
factors
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Prevention of Intellectual Disabilities
Prevention Levels:
– Primary (before onset or occurrence)
• Prenatal care, genetic testing, ultrasound
– Secondary (reduce risk factors)
• Newborn screening
– Tertiary (interventions)
• Aimed at maximizing the quality of life for a
person with a disability
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Characteristics of Individuals With Intellectual
Disabilities
Learning
Characteristics
-attention
-memory
-academic performance
-motivation
-generalization
-language development
Social and Behavioral
Characteristics
-poor interpersonal skills
-socially appropriate
interactions
-difficulty establishing
and maintaining
friendships
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Educational Considerations
Functional academics/functional curriculum
• Community-based instruction
• Standards-based instruction
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IEP teams must consider:
student and family preferences, student’s age and
years left in school, rate of learning, current and
future settings, other skill needs
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Effective Instructional Techniques
– High expectations
– Task analysis: A complex behavior or task is broken down
and sequenced into steps
– Cooperative learning: An instructional methods that
places small groups of students together in order to jointly
accomplish a common goal
– Scaffolding: Support is given to a student learning a new
task and the support is withdrawn as the student becomes
more independent and no longer needs the support.
– Inclusion strategies: Modify instruction, materials, and
assessments, teach organizational skills, monitor progress
of all students, collaborate with
families
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Services for Young Children With
Intellectual Disabilities
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Early intervention can be defined as the
services and supports rendered to children
with disabilities or those who evidence risk
factors, younger than age 3, and their
families.
Early intervention represents a consortium
of services—not just educational
assistance but also health care, social
services, family supports, and other
benefits.
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Transition Into Adulthood
Transition planning
• Independent living
• Employment
– Sheltered workshop
– Supported competitive employment
– Job coach
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Adults With Intellectual Disabilities
Integration in all aspects of daily life with
nondisabled peers
• Self-determination: decision-making capacity
must be fostered
• Self-advocacy: encourage people with
intellectual disabilities to advocate for their
own wants and needs
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Family Issues
Families with a child with intellectual disabilities may
experience a wide range of concerns and often rely
on a support network made up of friends and family
members in addition to parent organizations and
professional groups.
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Issues of Diversity
Overrepresentation of minority students in special
education programs
• Culturally biased assessment tools and practices
• Teacher expectations
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Technology and Individuals With
Intellectual Disabilities
Computers
Augmentative and alternative
communication (AAC) systems
• Self-operated prompting devices for daily
activities and life skills
• Content-area support
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Trends, Issues, and Controversies
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Genetic testing
Quality of life
Attitudinal changes
Technology and medical advances
Inclusive education
Increased self-advocacy and self-determination
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