Society: the Basics
Chapter 1
The Sociological Perspective

Sociology is the systematic study of human society

It helps us see the general in the particular

Encourages us to realize how society guides our
thoughts and deeds

Helps us to see individuality in social context

Ex: Emile Durkheim’s research – suicide rate is
influenced by how connected people are to others
Benefits of the Sociological
Perspective
 Helps
us assess both opportunities and
constraints in our lives
 Empowers
us to be active participants in
society
 Helps
us assess the truth of “common sense”
 Helps
us live in a diverse world
Importance of a Global
Perspective
 See
issues in a global perspective – the study
of the larger world and our society’s place in
it.
 Three
types of nations in the world:
 High Income – highly industrialized
 Middle Income – limited industrialization
 Low Income – little industrialization
Origins of Sociology

3 major changes in 17th and 18th centuries
 Rise of factory-based industrial economy
 Emergence of great cities in Europe
 Political changes
 Auguste Comte – major goal was to understand
society as it actually operates, favored positivism or
scientific approach
 3 stages of historical development: theological =>
metaphysical => scientific
Sociological Theory
A
theory is a statement of how and why
specific facts are related.
 Goal
is to explain social behavior in the real
world.
 Theories
are based on theoretical paradigms,
sets of assumptions that guide thinking and
research.
Structural-Functional
Paradigm

Sees society as a complex system whose parts work
together.

Asserts that our lives are guided by social structures.

Each social structure has social functions.

The influence of this paradigm has declined in recent
decades - it focuses on stability, thereby ignoring
inequalities of social class, race, and gender
Social-Conflict Paradigm

Sees society as an arena of inequality that generates
conflict and change.

Key figures – Karl Marx and E. B. DuBois

This paradigm has developed rapidly in recent years.

Limitations:
Ignores social unity
 Like structural-functional paradigm, it envisions
society in terms of broad abstractions.

The Symbolic-Interaction
Paradigm
 Sees
society as the everyday interactions of
individuals.
 Micro-level
orientation, may ignore larger
societal influences
 Focuses
on patterns of social interaction in
specific settings
Basics of Sociological
Investigation

Starts with 2 simple requirements:
 Use the sociological perspective
 Be curious and ask questions

Science – a logical system that bases knowledge on
direction, systematic observation

Scientific sociology – the study of society based on
systematic observation of social behavior.
Science: Basic Elements
and Limitations

A concept = a mental construct that represents
some part of the world in a simplified form.

A variable= a concept whose value changes from
case to case

Measurement = a procedure for determining the
variable

Almost any variable can be measured in more than
one way
Useful Measurements

To be useful, the measurements must be reliable and
valid

Reliable = consistency in measurement


The procedure must yield the same result if repeated.
Validity = precision in measuring exactly what one
intends to measure.

Valid measurements hit the bull’s-eye of the target.
Relationships Among
Variables

Scientific ideal is cause and effect = change in one variable
causes change in another.

The variable that causes the change is the independent
variable.

The variable that changes is the dependent variable.

Correlation = a relationship by which 2 variables change
together.

A spurious correlation is a false relationship between 2 or
more variables caused by yet another variable.
The Ideal of Objectivity
 Science
demands that researchers strive for
objectivity = a state of personal neutrality
 Researchers
carefully hold to scientific
procedures while reining in their own
attitudes and beliefs.
 It
is an ideal rather than a reality.
A Second Framework:
Interpretive Sociology
 Max
Weber argued that the proper focus in
sociology was interpretive.
 Interpretive
Sociology = the study of society
that focuses on the meanings that people
attach to their social world.
 It
is better suited to research in a natural
setting.
A Third Framework:
Critical Sociology
 Karl
Marx rejected the idea that society exists
as a natural system with a fixed order.
 Critical
sociology = the study of society that
focuses on the need for social change.
 The
point is not merely to study the world as
it is, but to change it.
Gender and Research

The five ways that gender can shape research
 Androcentricity
 Overgeneralization
 Gender blindness
 Double standards
 Interference

There is nothing wrong with focusing research on only one
sex or the other.

All sociologists should be mindful of gender in their research.
Methods of Sociology
Research

The Experiment = investigates cause and effect
under highly controlled conditions
 The experiment is used to test a hypothesis – an
unverified statement of a relationship between
variables.

A survey = subjects respond to a series of questions
in an interview
 Most widely used of all research methods
 They yield descriptive findings.
The Methods of
Sociological Research II

The Investigation = takes place in the field, where people
carry on in their everyday lives

Participant observation = investigators systematically observe
people while joining their routine activities.

Not all research requires investigators to collect their own
data.

Secondary analysis = a researcher uses data gathered by
others.

Most widely used statistics are gathered by govt. agencies.
10 Steps to Sociological
Investigation
1.
What is your topic?
2.
What have others already learned?
3.
What, exactly, are your questions?
4.
What will you need to carry out your research?
5.
Are there ethical concerns?
Sociological Investigation
Continued…
6. What methods will you use?
7. How will you record the data?
8. What does the data tell you?
9. What are your conclusions?
10. How can you share what you have learned?