EMP211S WEEK 1
HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
DEFINITION OF MORPHOLOGY
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MORPHOLOGY
AND OTHER LEVELS OF LANGUAGE ANALYSIS
SYNCHRONIC AND DIACHRONIC PERSPECTIVES TO
STUDYING THE HISTORY OF A LANGUAGE
THE SYNCHRONIC PERSPECTIVE TO THE HISTORY OF A LANGUAGE REFERS TO
THE SUM TOTAL OF THE SPEECH OF THE PEOPLE WHO USE THE
LANGUAGE AT EACH POINT IN TIME
THE DIACHRONIC PERSPECTIVE ON THE OTHER HAND REFERS TO THE STUDY
OF THE CHANGES THAT HAVE OCCURED IN THE EVOLUTION OF THE
LANGUAGE (Ogu, 1992, p.10).
OUR FOCUS THIS WEEK IS IN THE DIACHRONIC EVOLUTION OF THE ENGLISH
LANGUAGE OVER TIME. IN OTHER WORDS, HOW THE ENGLISH
LANGUAGE GREW AND DEVELOPED FROM THE TIME IT BECAME A
LANGUAGE SPOKEN BY A VERY SMALL GROUP OF PEOPLE TO THE
MODERN DAY GROWTH OF THE LANGUAGE TO A GLOBAL STATUS.
INNER/ OUTER HISTORY
 THE CHANGES THAT OCCUR IN THE HISTORY OF A LANGUAGE OVER TIME CAN
EITHER BE INTERNAL OR EXTERNAL.
 THE GRADUAL INTERNAL CHANGES THAT TAKE PLACE IN SUCCESSION OVER
TIME IN A LANGUAGE CONSTITUTE THE “INNER HISTORY” OF THE LANGUAGE
WHILE THE CHANGES BROUGHT ABOUT BY EXTERNAL INFLUENCES OVER TIME
MAKE UP THE “EXTERNAL HISTORY. “
 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AS WE KNOW IT TODAY HAS BEEN INFLUENCED BY
BOTH INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL CHANGES SINCE IT WAS FIRST BROUGHT INTO
BRITAIN BY THE ANGLO-SAXONS IN THE 6TH CENTURY.
 THE HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE CAN BE DIVIDED INTO THREE
BROAD PERIODS FOR THE SAKE OF CONVENIENCE AS THE HISTORY OF A
LANGUAGE IS A PROGRESSION OF CHANGE WITHIN A PERMANENT IDENTITY.
THE HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH
LANGUAGE
1) OLD ENGLISH PERIOD (449-1100)
2) MIDDLE ENGLISH PERIOD (1100-1500)
3) MODERN PERIOD (1500- ).
OLD ENGLISH (C450-1150)
 STARTED AT THE END OF THE 6TH CENTURY WITH THE INVASION OF
BRITAIN BY THE ANGLES, THE SAXONS AND THE JUTES-THREE GROUPS OF
GERMANIC PEOPLE FROM NORTHERN EUROPE.
 BEFORE THESE INVASIONS, BRITAIN WAS ALREADY A PART OF THE ROMAN
EMPIRE AS A RESULT OF JULIUS CEASAR’S CONGUEST .
 PRIOR TO THE ROMAN CONGUEST, THE PEOPLE WHO INHABITED THE
BRITISH ISLAND SPOKE A LANGUAGE THAT IS REFERRED TO AS CELTIC. THE
ROMANS HOWEVER INTRODUCED LATIN IN THE ISLAND WHILE CELTIC
REMAINED SPOKEN BY THE COMMON PEOPLE IN THE RURAL AREAS. THIS
EXPLAINS THE SURVIVAL OF CELTIC IN SOME PARTS OF MODERN DAY
WALES AND THE HIGHLANDS OF SCOTLANDS
WITHDRAWAL OF THE ROMANS
EARLY IN THE 5TH CENTURY THE ROMANS
WITHDREW THEIR ARMY FROM BRITAIN TO
PROTECT ROME FROM INVADERS FROM
NORTHERN EUROPE LEAVING BRITAIN
VULNERABLE TO BE ATTACKED BY THE PICTS AND
THE SCOTS FROM THE NORTH AND WEST
RESPECTIVELY.
VERY LITTLE OF CELTIC INFLUENCE IS LEFT ON
THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE TODAY EXCEPTS FOR
NAMES OF PLACES, RIVERS, HILLS AND TOWNS.
WORDS WITH CELTIC INFLUENCE
EXAMPLES OF ENGLISH WORDS WITH CELTIC
INFLUENCE ARE:
 RIVERS-AVON, STOUT
 TOWNS-DUMNONII, DEVON
 HILLS-BARR, BREDON
 VALLEYS-WINCHCOMBE, DUNCOMBE
IN CLASS ASSIGNMENT:
FIND OUT SOME OTHER NAMES OF PLACES, HILLS,
RIVERS AND TOWNS WITH CELTIC INFLUENCE IN
BRITAIN.
INFLUENCE OF THE ROMAN
OCCUPATION
 ROMAN INVASION FROM 55BC- EARLY 5TH CENTURY
 LEFT A LOT OF ROMAN INFLUENCE IN THE TOWNS AND CITIES INCLUDING
LINGUSITIC EFFECTS AS EXEMPLIFIED IN THE FOLLOWING LATIN WORDS IN
MODERN ENGLISH: OLD ENGLISH “CAESTER” FROM LATIN “CASTRA”
MEANING (CAMP) A COMMON NAME FOR A TOWN OR ENCLOSED PLACE
GAVE RISE TO THE FOLLOWING ENGLISH PLACE NAMES:
 CHESTER, MANCHESTER DORCHESTER, LANCASTER
FROM THE LATIN “PORTUS” MEANING GATE CAME THE ENGLISH PORT NAMES
SUCH AS :
 NEWPORT, PORTSEA, PORTSMOUTH
FROM THE LATIN “MONS” MEANING MOUNTAIN CAME THE WORDS :
 LARCHMONT, OAKMONT
IN CLASS ASSIGNMENT: LOOK FOR SOME OTHER WORDS OF COMMON ORIGIN
THE ANGLO-SAXON INVASION
 ORIGINALLY INVITED BY VORTIGEAN THE KING OF BRITON TO HELP REPEL
THE ATTACK OF PICTS AND SCOTS FROM THE NORTH BUT AFTER HELPING
TO DEFEAT THEM THEY PLUDERED AND EVENTUALLY OCCUPIED THEIR
HOST COUNTRY.
 THEY WERE OF GERMANIC TRIBE FROM THE EUROPEAN COAST AND LIVED
IN PRESENT DAY DENMARK AND NORTHERN GERMANY.
 THEY CAME IN THREE TRIBES: THE ANGLES (ENGLISH), THE SAXONS AND
THE JUTES
 THE ANGLES IN C. 547 FROM MODERN DENMARK SETTLED IN THE NORTH
AND CENTRAL ENGLAND
 THE SAXONS IN C. 477 FROM MODERN WEST GERMANY, NOW GERMANY
AND SETTLED IN SOUTHERN PART OF THE ISLAND
 THE JUTES C. 449 FROM JUTLAND AND THE NORTH SEA COAST AROUND
THE MOUTH OF THE RIVER RHINE AND OCCUPIED THE NORTH-EASTERN
COUNTRY OF KENT.
Nature of the Invasion
Were semi-normadic, warlike, sea-faring but
land loving people who absolved the Celtic
aborigines through intermarriage, conquest
and settlements.
Of the three tribes, the Angles and the Saxons
were the most numerous, persistent and
absorbed of the invaders.
This may explain the origin of the name
England today from AEngle-land, Engle-land.
OLD ENGLISH
 THE NAME USED TO REFER TO THE LANGUAGE THAT THE THREE GERMANIC
TRIBES SPOKE AFTER THE INVASION OF THE ENGLISH ISLAND.
 THE LANGUAGE THROUGH FIVE CENTURIES DEVELOP INTO AN INDEPENDENT
LANGUAGE DIFFERENT FROM ANY GERMANIC LANGUAGE SPOKEN IN
EUROPE.
 WAS NOT A UNIFORM LANGUAGE . IT HAS FOUR MAIN DIALECTS AS FOLLOWS:
1. NORTHUMBRIAN-SPOKEN BETWEEN THE HUMBER RIVER IN ENGLAND AND
THE FIRTH OF FORTH IN SCOTLAND
2. MERCIAN OR MIDLAND-SPOKEN BETWEEN THE HUMBER AND RIVER
THAMES
3. WEST SAXON-SPOKEN SOUTH WEST OF THAMES
4. KENT-SPOKEN IN KENT AND PARTS OF SURREY
LINGUISTIC EFFECTS OF THE ANGLOSAXON CONGUEST
 ADOPTION OF MANY WORDS OF LATIN ORIGINS BECAUSE THE THREE
TRIBES HAVE HAD CLOSER CONTACT WITH ROME.
 EXAMPLES OF OLD ENGLISH WORDS WITH LATIN AFFLIATION INCLUDE
THE FOLLOWING:
O. E
LATIN
MODERN
BISCEOP
BISCOPUS
BISHOP
CUPPE
CUPPA
CUP
DISC
DISCUS
DISH
CYCENE
COQUINA
KITCHEN
CYTEL
PULVINUS
PILLOW
THE FAMILY RELATIONSHIP OF
ENGLISH
 ENGLISH BELONG TO THE GROUP OF LANGUAGES DESCRIBED AS
GERMANIC. THIS GROUP INCLUDE GERMAN AND DUTCH.
 THE GERMANIC GROUP HAS THREE DIVISIONS: EAST GERMANIC, WEST
GERMANIC AND NORTH GERMANIC.
 NORTH GERMANIC-SCANDINAVIAN LANGUAGES: ICELANDIC, DANISH AND
SWEDISH LANGUAGES
 WEST GERMANIC-SUBDIVIDED INTO HIGH GERMAN, LOW GERMAN AND
ANGLO FRISIAN FROM WHICH MODERN ENGLISH DEVELOPED.
 EAST GERMANIC IS EXTANT
INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGE FAMILY
 ENGLISH TOGETHER WITH FRENCH, SPANISH, GERMAN AND
RUSSIAN ARE ALL MEMBERS OF THE INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGE
FAMILY. ENGLISH AND GERMAN BEING GERMANIC WHILE FRENCH
AND SPANISH ARE ROMANCE LANGUAGES AND RUSSIAN SLAVIC.
 ALL OF THESE LANGUAGES CAN BE TRACED BACK TO WHAT WAS
ONCE A SINGLE INDO-EUROPEAN PROTO-LANGUAGE.
 ENGLISH BELONG SPECIFICALLY TO THE TEUTONIC OR GERMANIC
BRANCH OF THE INDO-EUOPEAN FAMILY
 A FAMILY OF LANGUAGES MEANS A GROUP OF LANGUAGES THAT
HAVE ESSENTIAL SIMILARITES IN THE FORMS AND USES OF WORDS.
A FAMILY OF LANGUAGE CAN BE SUBDIVIDED INTO VARIOUS
BRANCHES, EACH WITH ONE OR MORE LANGUAGES.
THE BIRTH OF ENGLISH
 ENGLISH BECAME DETACHED FROM ITS GERMANIC ORIGIN WHEN THE
ANGLO-SAXON WARRIORS MIGRATED FROM THEIR ORIGINAL PLACES IN
THE EUROPEAN CONTINENT TO THE BRITISH ISLAND.
 IT DEVELOPED A SEPARATE CHARACTER OF ITS OWN WITH SUCCESIVE
INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL INFLUENCES TO BECOME A NEW LANGUAGE.
 THE EPIC BEOWULF IS A GOOD ILLUSTRATION OF OLD ENGLISH IN A
LITERARY FORM
IN CLASS ASSIGNMENT: LOOK FOR BEOWULF IN ORDER TO SEE THE NATURE
OF OLD ENGLISH
OLD ENGLISH
MODERN
BERAN
BEAR
OFER
OVER
BEORHTE
BRIGHT
THE BIRTH OF ENGLISH
 IN SPITE OF THE INDEPENDENT CHARACTERISTICS THT IT HAS DEVELOPED,
THE ENGLISH LANAGUAGE STILL SHOWS SOME COMMON ROOT WITH
OTHER INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES AS SHOWN BY SIR WILLIAM JONES
USING THE WORD “FATHER”:
ENGLISH
FATHER
GREEK
PATER
LATIN
PATER
GERMAN
VATER
DUTCH
VADER
GOTHIC
FADER
OLD IRISH
ATHEIR
SANSKRIT
PITAR
CHARACTERISTICS OF OLD ENGLISH
PERIOD
 FULL INFLECTIONAL SYSTEM SIMILAR TO THOSE OF LATIN AND GREEK
 ADOPTION OF MANY WORDS OF LATIN ORIGIN BECAUSE OF THE CONTACT
THAT THE THREE INVADING TRIBES-ANGLES, SAXON AND JUTES HAVE HAD
WITH ROME
 APART FROM THEIR LANGUAGES, THE THREE TRIBES ALSO BROUGHT
WITH THEM THEIR RELIGION AND BY IMPLICATION THE NAMES OF THEIR
gods. THE DAYS OF THE WEEK FOR INSTANCE DERIVED FROM ANGLOSAXON gods AS FOLLOWS:
 God of War
woden
(Wednesday)
 God of Thunder
Thunor or Thor
(Thursday)
 The Northern Venus
Frig
(Friday)
 A minor war god
Tiw
(Tuesday)
 A down goddess
Eustra
(Easter)
 A supreme god or spirit
Wyrd
(fate)
THE INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY
 ANOTHER CONGUEST THAT BROUGH ABOUT LINGUISTIC INFLUENCE IN THE
DEVELOPMENT OF THE ENGLISH LANGIAGE IS A RELIGIOUS ONE IN 597.
 POPE GREGORY THE GREAT SENT St. Augustine and forty Benedictine monks
TO THE SOUTHEASTERN COAST OF ENGLAND TO PREACH CHRISTIANITY.
 THESE MISSIONARIES BROUGHT WITH THEM CLASSICAL CIVILIZATION;
EDUCATION AND THE LATIN LANGUAGE WHICH AT THAT TIME IS THE
LANGUAGE OF THE UNIVERSAL CHURCH AS WELL AS THAT OF EDUCATED
MEN.
 THIS DEVELOPMENT LED TO THE TEACHING OF GREEK AND LATIN IN ENGLISH
SCHOOLS.
 THIS ALLOWED THE ANGLO-SAXON TO RECORD THEIR TRADITION AND TO
REMEMBER POETRY THROUGH THE BARD. BOOKS WERE WRITTEN IN LATIN
BUT TRANSLATED TO ENGLISH AND LATIN WORKS WERE ALSO TRANSLATED
INTO ENGLISH
INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY
 THIS DEVELOPMENT BROUGHT ABOUT THE INTRODUCTION OF MANY
THEOLOGICAL WORDS INTO ENGLISH
 THIS DEVELOPMENT IS ALSO CREDICTED TO BE THE BEGINNING OF THE
CHARACTERISTIC ENGLISH HABIT OF WORD-BORROWING (Francis, 1963,
p. 9)
HERE ARE SOME EXAMPLES OF ENGLISH WORDS WITH PURELY LATIN ORIGIN:
Abbot
Charlice
disciple
Pope
temple
altar
chauster
epistle
deacon
tunic
alms
Church
minister
synod
monachus (monk)
Anthem
episcopus
presbyter
(bishop)
(priest)
devil (Latin diabolus and Greek diabolos)
IN CLASS ASSIGNMENT –LOOK FOR OTHER WORDS OF LATIN ORIGIN IN
ENGLISH
INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIANITY
 THROUGH THE INFLUENCE OF THE TWO CLASSICAL LANGUAGES IN
EDUCATION THE GERMANIC ANGLO-SAXONS ACQUIRE THE CAPACITY TO
ABSORB FOREIGN WORDS.
 THE ENGLISH CULTURE AS WELL AS THE LANGUAGE IS SUBSEQUENTLY
ENRICHED
 THE ENRICHMENT ALSO DEMONSTRATE THE RECEPTIVE ABILITY THAT THE
ENGLISH LANGUAGE HAS TOWARDS OTHER FOREIGN LANGUAGES
THE DANISH INVASION OF AD793
 THIS WAS A MILITARY INVASION
 THE DANES CAME FROM THE COAST OF MODERN NORWAY AND THE
DANISH PENINSULA
 THEY WERE CULTURALLY AND LINGUISTICALLY RELATED TO THE ANGLOSAXON AS THEY SPOKE VARIETIES OF THE GERMANIC LANGUAGE
 THE CONQUEST RESULTED IN ENGLAND BEING RULED BY THE DANISH
KINGS FROM 1014-1039
 THEY WERE CALLED VIKINGS AND OCCUPIED A FACTION OF THE
COUNTRY-NORTHUMBRIA, THE EAST MIDLANDS AND THE WEST COAST OF
IRELAND
 THEY SOON SETTLED AND ACCEPTED THE ANLO-SAXON RELIGION AND
LANGUAGE BUT WITH SOME ALTERATION.
 THEIR INFLUENCES CAN BE SEEN IN SOME ENGLISH PLACE NAMES.
EXAMPLES OF DANISH LINGUISTIC
INFLUENCE
 Derby
Rugby Danelaw and names ending –by, -thorp, -beck, -dale and
–thwaite
 Personal Names with the suffix-son, -es as in Johnson, Gibson, Jackson etc
 Other words from the Danish invasion include words connected with
warfare, the sea, law and administration
 Some words such as :
Wife, man, house, thing, summer, ride, mine hear, came, writer, think are
common to both languages
 ONE MAJOR FEATURE THAT EVOLVE FROM THESE CONTACTS IS THE
EXISTENCE SIDE-BY-SIDE IN MODERN ENGLISH OF TWO FORMS OF THE
SAME WORD AS ANGLO-SAXON, THE OTHER DANISH OR SCANDINAVIAN
AS SEEN IN THE FOLLOWING EXAMPLES
EXAMPLES
No/nay
From/fro
Rear/raise
Shriek/ screech
THE EFFECT OF THESE KIND OF VARIANT FORMS HAS BEEN OBSERVED BY
(Sheard, 1954, p. 118)
“one important effect of the existence of variant forms side by side has been
the possibility of making finer distinctions in meaning.”
This makes it possible to differentiate skin from hide, rise and raise from rear.
THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE WAS ALSO ENRICHED BY RACIAL MIXTURE IN
ADDITION TO LANGUAGE INFLUENCE.