CHAPTER 1
I.
“Best Friends Animal Society” case study
A.
II.
Small groups essential to everyday lives
Groups in Your Life
A. Family group fulfills major group role of developing and forming identity.
B. Professionally, groups becoming an ever-present part of organizational
atmosphere.
C. American businesses ranked ability to work in teams 4th…1st is ability to
communicate.
D. CLASS DISCUSSION (CD): Why is effective communication important?
i. Participating in Groups
1. Effective group problem solving:
a. how well members understand and manage such
things as informational resources
b. how members feel about each other
c. how members feel about the task
d. how skilled members are at expressing themselves
and listening to others
e. how well members collectively process the
information they have to work with
2. Two key functions of group communication
a. accomplish the group’s task
b. promotes relationships between members
3. Trade individual freedom for advantages of producing
results of which only a team is capable…while negotiating
tensions that arise with group work
III.
Groups versus Individuals as Problem Solvers
A. Positive aspects of groups
i. Better at conjunctive tasks: no one person has all the
information, but each member has some information
ii. Create “active” rather than “passive” learning, which improves
problem solving and critical thinking skills.
iii. Larger number of possible solutions
iv. Able to correct misinformation, faulty assumptions, invalid
reasoning
v. Able to detect problems that may be individually overlooked
vi. More thoroughly investigative
vii. More accepting of, and work harder to implement, the solution
B. When a group is not a good choice
i. Skilled person may be able to provide best or correct solution
ii. Conditions are changing rapidly
iii. Insurmountable procedural, social or personality-mix problems
iv. When individuals have extreme levels of grouphate because of
negative past group experience
IV.
Groups, Small Groups, Teams, and Small Group Communication
A. Group Definition: Three or more individuals who have a
common purpose, interact with each other, influence each
other, and are interdependent
B. CD: To which groups do you belong? (remember interaction,
influence and interdependence)
C. Small group definition: A group of at least three people that
is small enough for individual members to perceive one
another as individuals during interaction
i. Ideal range is 3-7 members
ii. Provide diversity of perspectives and information
iii. CD: How might small groups differ from dyads?
D. Team definition:
i. Member responsibilities are more clearly spelled out
ii. Rules and operating procedures are explicitly defined
iii. Goals are clear and specific
iv. Teams openly discuss how members will work together
v. Team effectiveness
1. members are collaborative and easy to work with.
2. relationships among members are easy and supportive.
3. group processes and procedures are aligned well with
what the teams wants to achieve.
4. leaders help the team and members accomplish goals
rather than getting in the way.
5. parent organization encourages and supports the team
rather than creating obstacles to its success.
vi. We use the terms interchangeable because not differences
mentioned by Beebe and Masterson and LaFasto and Larson
are not as clear cut in real experience with groups.
E. Communication defined: The perception, interpretation, and
response of people to signals produced by others
F. Small group communication defined: The verbal and
nonverbal interaction among members of a small group
i. Process of influence
ii. Requires interacting
iii. More informal and spontaneous than public communication
iv. Roles are interchangeable: both listen and speak
V.
Groups and technology
A. Technology can make group work easier
B. Most groups use a combination of technologies.
i. Teleconferencing and Skype allow members to meet
simultaneously, while members can be scattered all over the
world.
ii. Wikis and Dropboxes allow members to work collaboratively on
documents regardless of where the members are physically
located
iii. Mediated communication (computers, telephones, etc.) limits
ability to understand emotions as in face-to-face
communication.
iv. Computer-Mediated-Communication (CMC) may impair a
group’s ability to develop relationships among members
VI.
Classifying Groups by Their Major Purpose
A. Primary or Secondary Groups
i. Three major forces motivate human interaction: inclusion,
affection, and control
ii. Primary groups defined: Groups formed to meet
primary needs for inclusion and affection
iii. Secondary group defined: Groups formed to meet
secondary needs for control and problem-solving
B. Types of Secondary Groups
i. Support groups defined: Groups formed for members
to help each other understand, address, and cope with
personal issues or problems
ii. Learning groups defined: Groups meeting to
understand and learn about a particular topic
iii. Organizational groups defined: Groups created by
organizations, usually to solve organizational problems
1. Committee defined: A type of secondary group
that performs a specific service for an organization
a. Usually advisory, reporting to an executive or a
board
b. Standing committee is a permanent committee,
with a typical three-year term of office
c. Ad hoc committee is created for one special
assignment, sometimes called a task force
d. Conference committees represent other groups that
must find common group
2. Quality control circles defined: Organizational
groups that address issues of job performance and
work improvement
a. Deals with issues that affect job performance
b. Concerned with the quality/quantity of work output
and attempt to improve competitiveness
c. Leaders may be elected or appointed
d. Suggestions are forwarded to the managers
3. Self-managed work teams defined: Groups of
peers who manage their own schedules and
procedures
a. Elect own leader who is co-worker
b. Characteristics:
i. Require less supervision
ii. Produce higher-quality products
iii. Have less lost time
iv. Generally produce high morale and job
satisfaction
VII. Being an Ethical Group Member
A. Willing to communicate and share ideas, information, and
perspectives
B. Treat fellow members with respect and consideration
C. Use critical thinking skills when evaluating information, ideas, and
proposals in a thorough and unbiased way
D. Demonstrate a commitment to the group
VIII. The Participant-Observer Perspective
A. Participant- Observer defined: A group member who
participates but also observes the group and adapts as
necessary
B. A skilled participant-observer can help by supplying information,
procedural suggestions, and interpersonal communication skills
needed by the group
CHAPTER 2
I.
“The Jamaican Winter Olympic Bobsled Team” case study
a. Elements and unique interaction
i. Various member abilities
ii. The team’s game plan
iii. Leadership within the team
iv. One member’s ability to assess the team’s competency, earn
member’s trust, and motivate them to find their own style of
sledding
II.
What is a theory?
a. A “map of reality,” something that helps us navigate unfamiliar
terrain and make decisions.
b. Both describes relationships between elements and shows how to get
from one element to another.
c. Good theories are both practical and reliable.
III.
Overview of General Systems Theory
a. Developed by a biologist, Ludwig von Bertalanffy as a way to explain
complex living organisms
b. The human body as an example: various systems works together to
allow the entire system to perform tasks
c. Although groups are composed of individual members, they are
interdependent and interact to form a social system that becomes its
own entity
d. Elements that can affect the dynamics of a group (no single element
functions alone – they all interact continuously)
i. Reason the group was formed
ii. Personalities of the group members
iii. Information available
iv. Type of leadership
v. How the group handles conflict
vi. How successful the group has been
IV.
The Small Group as a System
a. System defined: A set of elements that functions as a whole
because of interdependent relationships
i. Small group functions interdependently with the environment
c. Concepts Vital to Understanding Systems (based on Katz & Kahn)
i. Inputs defined: All the elements of a system that are
present at the outset, or the initial raw materials of the
system
1. Members’ attitudes
2. Abilities and experiences of the members
3. Information or items brought into the group from the
outside
4. Group’s purpose
ii. Throughput processes defined: Influences on the
system that result from actual activities within the
group as it goes about its business
1. Activities within the group
2. How roles, rules and leadership develop
3. How members handle conflict
4. How members evaluate information
5. Verbal and nonverbal behaviors in the group
6. All of our throughputs are affected by one another
iii. Outputs defined: Those tangible and intangible
products or achievements of the group system
emerging from throughput processes
1. The results
2. A final paper or presentation
iv. Environment defined: Systems do not exist in a vacuum
but are embedded in multiple surroundings or contexts
1. A classroom is pleasant or ugly, noisy or quiet
2. The small group system is linked to its environment,
which in turn affects communication processes within the
small group itself
v. Bona Fide Group Perspective defined: groups both
influence and help shape those same environments that
shape the group.
1. This mutual influence occurs for several reasons:
a. Group members belong to other groups
b. Groups coordinate with other groups within the
same organization
c. Frequent internal/external communication over
groups goals
d. Members bring a variety of interests, ways of
speaking and mental models of effective group
problem solving
e. All of these factors affect how members create their
sense of “group”
f. CD: Use “apply now” on page 36 to further
elaborate Bona Fide Group Perspective
2. Research supports the impact of the environment on a
group. Broome and Fulbright show that organizational
factors in the environment beyond a group’s control has
negative effects on the group’s performance.
vi. Virtual Groups Defined: members do not communicate
with each other in the same time and place. This alters
traditional small group concepts:
1. Virtual groups deal with tasks that are more multidimensional than traditional groups
2. Virtual group members may not know who to contact for
more information
3. Formal positions of power rarely exist
4. Decision making procedures guided by “parent”
organizations rather than internally as in traditional
groups
c. Characteristics of Systems
i. Open system defined: Free exchange of information
with their environments; that is, inputs and outputs
flow back and forth between the system and its
environment
1. High levels of interaction
2. Each position, open or closed systems, has advantages
and disadvantages
ii. Closed system defined: Have limited flow of
information between themselves and their
environment
1. No completely closed system
2. Little interaction
iii. Interdependence defined: The elements of a system
are interdependent such that all elements mutually
influence each other
iv. Feedback defined: The return of system outputs as
system inputs, which allows the system to monitor
its movement toward goals and make necessary
changes
1. To be helpful, feedback must be clear, accurate and
grounded in sound reasoning
2. The best way to give feedback is to “sandwich” it
between items of positive feedback
3. Feedback will be evaluated regarding source and content
IX.
Multiple Causes and Multiple Paths
a. The complex nature of groups makes it impossible to pre-determine
where a group will end up
ii. The concept of equifinality suggests that groups can start
out at very different places but end up at the same place
iii. The concept of multifinality suggests that groups starting
out the same may end up at different places
iv. Multiple causes defined: No single system input
determines system outputs, instead system outcomes
are the result of numerous, interdependent factors
1. Multiple reasons to succeed or fail
2. CD: Why does one NBA team make it to the Finals and
another team doesn’t? Which factors led to success or
failure?
v. Multiple paths defined: System objectives can be
reached in a variety of ways
1. More than one appropriate way to reach a particular
objective
2. CD: What is the process of making a peanut-butter and
jelly sandwich? Do we perform this task in all the same
ways?
vi. Nonsummativity defined: A system’s ability to take on
an identity separate from its individual elements
1. Not the sum of its parts
2. Groups often achieve an assembly effect, or a positive
synergy, in which the output is superior to the averaging
of the outputs of the individual members
CHAPTER 3
I.
“Students for Alternative Medicine” case study
a. Misunderstanding in the small group
b. To function effectively as a team, members must learn to put their
thoughts and feelings into signals that other members can interpret
and respond to
II.
Communication: What’s that?
a. Communication defined: Transactional process of
simultaneously creating, interpreting, and negotiating
shared meaning through interaction
b. There are five major characteristics to this seemingly simple
definition:
i. Communication is symbolic. A symbol is anything that
arbitrarily stands for something else
1. Abstract and arbitrary representations
2. Take a variety of forms, words are most common
ii. Communication is personal, which means that meanings are in
people, not in words
1. CD: Does the phrase, “I love you,” or the word
“commitment” mean the same thing to each relational
partner that uses the phrase or word? What about the
word, “deadline”?
iii. Communication is transactional, not a thing or state
1. Communicating is multidirectional
2. Group members must work together toward mutual
understanding
3. Meanings are conceived or created in context between
persons
iv. Shared meaning is the responsibility of all members.
1. NCA Credo states that all members must accept
responsibility for short and long term consequences of
their communicative actions
2. If you fail to mention that you don’t understand, it is not
the other person’s fault, but your own.
v. All messages involve content and relational dimensions
1. Content dimension defined: The ideas (or “what”) of a
message
2. Relational dimension defined: The “how” of a message
expressing the perceived relationship between
communicators
III.
Listening: Receiving, Interpreting, and Responding to Messages from
Other Group Members
a. Listening defined: A complex process involving perceiving,
interpreting, and responding to messages
i. Listening requires activity
ii. Effective listening requires:
1. Hear what the speaker said
2. Interpret it accurately
3. Respond appropriately
iii. Major factors that influence what words and actions mean to us
include our culture, gender, age, sexual orientation, learning
style, and personalities
iv. Listening also requires members to listen “between the lines”
for relational information about the message
b. Listening Preferences
i. Identify your own preference and those of the other members
ii. Shift your preference to meet the needs of the group
iii. People-oriented listeners are focused on how their listening
behaviors impact relationships and can attend too much to
others’ moods and go off task
iv. Action-oriented listeners pay attention to the details
v. Content-oriented listeners are drawn to highly credible sources
and enjoy analyzing things she or he hears.
vi. Time-oriented listeners are more focused on time and time
constraints, not the relational or action components of the
meeting
vii. No preference is best
c. Listening Actively
i. Active listening defined: Listening to understand a
message before critically judging it
1. Active listening is to paraphrase – put into your own
words what another person has stated
2. Active listeners confirm understanding before they state
evaluations
3. Active listening is not always necessary, but is important
when dealing with sensitive or controversial matters
d. CD: Use table 3.2 on page 60 to gets students discussing instances in
which they have been guilty of poor listening. This works really well
when students identify the poor listening in others, but eventually
they will start to think of examples of when they have been poor
listeners.
IV.
Creating Messages in a Small Group
a. Message defined: Signals interpreted as a whole by group
members
b. Verbal and nonverbal messages operate together to create meaning
V.
Creating Effective Verbal Communication in Small Groups
a. Adjust to the symbolic nature of language
i. Bypassing defined: group members think they have the
same meaning for a word but in actuality do not
ii. Give concrete examples of abstract words
iii. Define highly abstract words with synonyms or descriptive
terms
iv. Quantify whenever possible – instead of saying chances are
higher, say 3/5 times this happens
b. Organize remarks – do not move aimlessly from topic to topic
i. Relate your statement to the preceding statement
ii. State on point, not a multipoint speech
iii. State the point as directly and concretely as possible
c. Be sensitive to the feelings of others
i. Avoid emotive words, words that trigger strong emotional
responses.
ii. CD: Use the “ethical dilemma” on page 68 to discuss emotive
words
d. Follow the rules of the group – every group will have different rules
for communicating
i. Some groups are more formal and require Mr./Ms. “so and so”
rather than first name
ii. Some groups allow slang, others do not
iii. Be aware of the rules and follow them
VI.
Nonverbal Communication in Small Groups
a. Nonverbal communication defined: Anything in a message
that is not the word itself
b. Verbal and nonverbal messages can be considered on a continuum,
one extreme are primarily verbal and the other primarily nonverbal
c. Verbal and nonverbal messages are inseparable
d. Principles of nonverbal communication
i. Nonverbal messages are ambiguous – a smile does not
necessarily mean happiness
ii. People cannot stop sending nonverbal messages, even when
they are not talking – sitting with your arms crossed and foot
tapping suggests something
iii. When verbal and nonverbal messages clash, most people
believe the nonverbal
e. Functions of nonverbal behaviors
i. We convey emotions through our nonverbal behaviors
ii. Convey our perception of relationships
iii. Supplement words by emphasizing them
iv. Substitute for spoken or written words
v. Regulate the flow of interaction
vi. Contradict what we verbalize
f. Categories of nonverbal behaviors
i. Appearance – members form impressions before anybody has
said anything
ii. Space and Seating – people use space to communicate.
1. For example, in American culture we allow friends only
within our social distance, but in Arab cultures, everybody
communicates well within the 4-8 feet Americans prefer.
The seating arrangements in a group (group ecology) can
suggest formality and informality within an organization
iii. Facial Expressions and Eye Contact.
1. For Americans, eye contact establishes the lines of
communication are open; but this is not the same in all
cultures
2. Facial expressions can set the emotional tone of an
interaction. Poker faces, or emotionless faces, tend to be
trusted less than people who are willing to convey some
feelings with their facial expressions.
iv. Movement of hands, arms and the body
1. Leaning into somebody can suggest you like them
2. Tension can be revealed by swinging a foot or tapping a
pencil
3. High status members tend to appear relaxed – they lean
back and look around
v. Voice (includes pitch, speed, fluency, loudness, pauses)
1. Tone can help us to interpret one’s mood
2. Backchannel cues indicate that somebody is involved in
the conversation. This is cultural, European backgrounds
use these less frequently than Hispanics or African
Americans.
3. Dialect refers to regional and social variations in
pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar.
vi. Timing (both cultural and relational)
1. In some cultures getting started at a meeting right away
is considered rude, while U.S. businesses tend to operate
in that manner
2. Excessive talkers during a meeting can be considered
rude if the culture values time as a commodity
VII. Nonverbal Behavior in Computer-Mediated Groups
a. In most CMC groups, cannot look at the person to help understand
the message
b. Comparing Face-to-Face (FtF) and Computer-Mediated Group
Communication (CMC)
i. Computer-Mediated Communication defined: any
interaction via computer technology, such as chat
rooms
1. Group members adapt to CMC, one study showed similar
language styles among cohesive groups
2. Nonverbal communication operates differently in CMC
environments
ii. In a net-conference (any conference connected by a network of
computers) or a webinar (any computer-mediated presentation
or workshop that is interactive) nonverbal messages might be
missing entirely.
1. Turn taking might be awkward
2. Discussion is more choppy
3. For some tasks these complications don’t matter (like
brainstorming) but when a group has to make a decision
through consensus this might create a problem
iii. Compared to FtF communication, CMC has less social presence
(the degree to which a person feels that another is actually
present during an interaction)
1. Asynchronous communication (communication with a
delay between messages) promotes less social presence
than synchronous communication (electronic chat rooms)
2. Group members can adapt to this
a. Email names allow people to form an impression of
one another
b. Emoticons (typographic symbols used to convey
emotions) help to increase social presence
c. Studies suggest that when previously known ways
of communicating are not available, people will
adapt – these have been some ways in which
people have adapted social presence to CMC.
CHAPTER 4
I.
“The Man of La Mancha Cast and Crew” case study
II.
How Communication Structures the Small Group
a. Structuration defined: The idea that group communication
creates, maintains, and continually recreates a group’s
norms and the way it operates
b. Three important assumptions regarding Structuration Theory
i. Group members do not come to a group with a clean slate
about how to behave
ii. While people may understand general rules and principles
about working within a group, no law forces them to obey
those rules.
iii. The group constantly creates and re-creates itself through
communication
III.
Challenges in Group Development
a. A Group’s Major Functions
b. First issue is managing social tensions, which involves the task and
the relationship among members
c. Task and socioemotional concerns surface at predictable periods in a
group’s life cycle.
i. Initially socioemotional concerns are of importance as members
get to know one another, but at the same time they are
managing their task
ii. Groups never stop dealing with these two main functions
d. Social Tensions in Groups
i. Primary tension defined: Anxiety arising early in a
group’s formation, as members work out their
relationships and roles
ii. Secondary tension defined: Task-related tension that
stems from differing opinions about the substantive
work of the group
iii. Tertiary tension defined: Tension that stems from
power and status struggles in a group
iv. Social tension must be managed effectively
1. Groups can move through primary tension stage quickly if
they are not strangers
2. Primary and secondary tension can be lowered if group
members are willing to share what they know about the
problem
3. Secondary and tertiary tensions can be reduced if there is
a group climate of tolerance for different opinions
4. Humor can be an effective way to manage secondary and
tertiary tensions
a. Phase Models of Group Development
i. Tuckman’s Model of Group Development
1. Forming phase defined: Phase where members
begin to both form initial impressions of other
group members and get a handle on the task
requirements of the group.
2. Storming phase defined: Phase where group
members start tackling the group important issues
and where strong feelings to begin to surface.
3. Norming phase defined: Phase where member
have worked through their initial conflicts, learn to
appreciate the skills and abilities of their fellow
group members, and begin to feel that they are
part of a group.
4. Performing phase defined: Phase where group
members are able to work smoothly and
effectively. However, not all groups reach this
phase. The groups that do reach the performing
stage have become interdependent, shift
responsibilities appropriately, and group
identification is high.
5. Adjourning phase defined: A phase later added to
the model, is the phase where the group
completes its task and the group members prepare
to disband.
ii. Gersick’s Model of Punctuated Equilibrium
1. Punctuated equilibrium describes the often non-linear
patterns group exhibit as they move through their phases
(e.g., back and forth between stasis change).
2. The change punctuated the long periods of stability, or
equilibrium, to create punctuated equilibrium.
IV.
Group Socialization of Members
a. Group socialization defined: Process by which new and/or established
members learn to fit together through communication.
i.
Adapting and adjusting that happens when new members enter
an established group occur through communication among
members
ii.
Effective socialization requires a balance between individual
members and group goals
iii.
Socialization is an ongoing process and is not only about the
new member but is also about the group
b. Stages of Group Socialization
i. Antecedent stage defined: Stage in group socialization
during which members bring previous group
experiences, attitudes, beliefs, motives, and
communication traits to the process
ii. Anticipatory stage defined: Stage in group socialization
describing individual and group initial expectations of
each other
iii. Encounter stage defined: Stage in group socialization
in which members’ expectations meet with reality as
members adjust and fit with each other
iv. Assimilation stage defined: Stage in group socialization
in which group members show full integration
v. Exit stage defined: Stage in group socialization in
which individuals leave a group or entire group
disbands
V.
Group Roles
a. Types of Roles
i.
Role defined: the part a member plays in a group.
ii.
The role your play in your group emerges as a function of your
personality, behavior, expectations, the expectations of other
members and any formal titles you have in the group
b. Role Functions in a Small Group
i.
Task Roles contribute directly to the accomplishment of the
group’s task
ii.
Maintenance Roles help the group maintain harmonious
relationships and a cohesive interpersonal climate
iii.
Individual Roles consist of self-centered behaviors
c. The Emergence of Roles in a Group
i. Each group of which you are a part will requires you to play a
different roles
ii. Groups bring different combinations of skills and personality
characteristics
iii. The advent of technology may impact role creation, for
example, people who are more skilled with technology may
develop a more leadership role than before
d. Managing Group Roles
i. As the Bona Fide Group Perspective mentions, we are often a
member of many groups simultaneously and some of your roles
within these group will clash
ii. Members must segment or integrate their membership to
manage these clashes
1. In segmenting, you make clear limits of your involvement
in the group
2. In integrating, boundaries are less defined and you might
try to manage both roles
iii. Because the group constantly re-creates itself, roles will
constantly change
VI.
Rules and Norms
i.
Rules defined: Formal, explicit standards of behavior
and procedures by which a group operates
ii.
Norms defined: Informal, implicit standards of
behavior and procedures by which members operate
iii.
Development of Group Norms
1. Primacy is important to norm development
2. Explicit remarks by a leader or group member may emerge
into a norm
3. Critical events may play a role in norm development
4. Many group norms are taken from the large culture of the
members
iv.
Enforcement of Group Norms
1. Deviants defined: Members who consistently violate group
norms
2. Groups will try to pressure the deviant to conform
v.
Changing a Group Norm
1. Changing a norm is not always easy
2. One way to change a norm is to bring the group’s attention
to the norm and the negative effect it has on the group
VIII. Development of a Group’s Climate
a. Group climate defined: The psychological atmosphere or
environment within a group
b. Many dimensions are involved in creating the group’s climate
i. Trust defined: General belief that members can rely on
each other
ii. Hidden agenda defined: An unstated private goal a
member wants to achieve through a group
iii. Cohesiveness defined: The bonds of attachment
members have for each other and the consequences of
groupthink
1. Task cohesiveness: members are committed to project
completion, in contrast, highly
2. Social cohesiveness: members like to spend time with one
another
3. Highly cohesive groups must guard against “groupthink”
or the tendency not to examine critically all aspects of a
decision or a problem.
iv. Supportiveness (and defensiveness)
1. In a supportive climate, members encourage each other,
care about each other and treat each other with respect
2. In a defensive climate, members try to control,
manipulate, and criticize each other.
IX.
Ethical Behavior During Group Formation
a. Communicate in ways that help establish a supportive climate.
b. Communication that degrades other members must not be tolerated.
c. Freedom of expression, diversity of perspective, and tolerance of
disagreement must be encouraged.
d. Members must be willing to express their genuine personal
convictions, even if this requires courage to disagree with other
members.
CHAPTER 5
I.
“The Misfit” case study
II.
What is Diversity?
a. Diversity defined: Differences among group members, from
personality and learning style differences to differences of
opinion
b. Homogeneity defined: Groups composed of members who
are similar or alike in member characteristics
c. Heterogeneity defined: Groups composed of members who
are different on one or more dimensions
d. The more heterogeneous the group the more likely it will be effective
(effective group work requires a variety of skills)
e. Diversity is becoming more prevalent in the workplace today
f. Any discussion of diversity requires generalization: not all members
of one group necessarily fit the mold
III.
Diverse Member Characteristics
a. Differences in Motives for Joining a Group
i. Task-oriented individuals have a focus on control and
achievement needs, believe the group’s task is the reason for
the group’s existence
ii. Relationally-oriented individuals value human relationships
more than they do task accomplishment
iii. Both kinds of members are valuable to the group
b. Diversity of Learning Styles
i. Concrete-experience learning style defined: Preference
for learning by participating and doing
ii. Reflective-observation learning style defined:
Preference for gaining perspective about one’s
experience by thinking reflectively about it
iii. Abstract-conceptualization learning style defined:
Preference for reading and solitary study
iv. Active-experimentation learning style defined:
Preference for trying out different things to see what
work
c. Personality Differences
i. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator defined: A personality
measure, based on Jung’s work, that classifies people
into 16 basic personality types according to their scores
on four dimensions
1. Extraversion/Introversion dimension: Whether someone’s
energy is directed outward toward observable events or
toward an inner, mental landscape
2. Sensing/Intuiting dimension: Whether someone focuses
on present facts or future possibilities
3. Thinking/Feeling dimension: How people make decisions,
by analysis of objective evidence or empathy and
subjective feelings
4. Perceiving /Judging dimension: Whether someone is
spontaneous and flexible or planned and orderly
IV.
Cultural Diversity
a. Culture defined: The system of beliefs, values, and symbols
shared by an identifiable group of people
b. Dimensions of culture
i. Individualistic: A culture that values individual needs and goals
more than group needs and goals
ii. Collectivist: A culture that values group needs and goals more
than individual needs and goals
iii. Power-distance: Whether a culture maximizes or minimizes
status and power differences
iv. Low-context: A culture where the words used convey more
meaning than the situation or context
v. High-context: A culture where the situation or context convey
more meaning than the words people use
c. Race and Ethnic Differences (remember: for every generalization we
make, there are members of each group that do not fit the mold –
what follows are some generalizations about communicative
differences among racial and ethnic groups)
i. Asian cultures tend to be collectivist and high-context cultures
ii. Most Hispanic cultures are collectivist and have a high power
distance
iii. African American culture values sharing, emotionality, verbal
expression, and interactivity more so than European Americans
d. Gender Differences
i. Gender defined: Learned characteristics of masculinity
and femininity
ii. Sex defined: The inherent biological characteristics of
male and female with which people are born
iii. Research suggests four areas in which women and men show
different communication tendencies: Expressive/Instrumental,
Task/Relationship, Forcefulness, Individual/Group
1. Expressive behaviors focus on feelings and relationships
2. Instrumental behaviors focus on accomplishing the
group’s task
3. Task behaviors focus on the task
4. Relationship behaviors focus on ensuring everybody is
okay
5. Forcefulness involves how much somebody talks,
interrupts others, claims personal space, or otherwise
calls attention to him- or herself during discussion
6. Individual orientation calls attention to one’s own
personal status
7. Group orientation calls attention to the group’s
accomplishments
iv. Multiple factors contribute to the way a person communicates
within a group and we must not overemphasize the differences
and dismiss similarities
e. Generational Differences
i. The members of each generational subculture are highly
influenced by the major events, people, and activities
prominent during their formative years
ii. Builders defined: Individuals born from 1901 to 1945;
influenced by Great Depression and World War II
iii. Boomers defined: Individuals born from 1946 to 1964;
influenced by TV and social upheaval of 1960s
iv. Gen-Xers defined: Individuals born from 1965-1976;
influenced by Watergate and general mistrust
v. Net generation defined: Individuals born from 1977-
1997; influenced by computers and information/digital
revolution
V.
Working with Diversity/Bridging Differences
a. Working with diversity in a small group does not happen without
mindful communication
b. Mindful Communication defined: Open to multiple
perspectives, willing to see the world from another’s
standpoint, and shifts perspective if necessary
c. Creating a Group Identity Through Fantasy
i. Diversity is helpful to the group (remember different heads are
better than the same head)…but how can we overcome
differences to function as a unit?
ii. The best way to do this is through creating a shared group
identity, and Fantasy creates the symbolic convergence needed
for this shared identity.
1. Fantasy defined: Group discussion not focused on
the present task of the group
2. Symbolic convergence defined: Humans create
shared meaning through their talk; the basis of
group fantasy
3. Group storytelling is called a fantasy chain and the chains
usually have a theme, which can be divided into a
manifest theme (surface level) or latent theme
(underlying).
4. Fantasies are not off task, they can help the group in two
ways
a. Define itself by creating symbols that are
meaningful and help determine its values
b. Enable groups to discuss indirectly matters that
might be too difficult to bring out into the open
d. Principles for Bridging Differences
i. Appreciate the value of diversity
ii. Openly acknowledge the differences
iii. Talk openly about how you will integrate your differences
iv. Form a group identity around your differences
v. Use communication practices that build collective competence
vi. Refrain from using practices that detract from competence
CHAPTER 6
I.
“Ozarks Greenways, INC.” case study
II.
What is Creative Thinking?
a. Creative thinking defined: Encouraging the use of a hunch,
intuition, insight, and fantasy to promote creativity
b. Groups are major sources of creative ideas and innovations
c. Group creativity is both divergent and convergent
i. Divergent thinking defined: ideas should vary
ii. Convergent thinking defined: ideas must come together
d. For a group to be creative, both individual and group creativity are
needed
i. Creative individuals tolerate ambiguity, have low levels of
communication apprehension, and aren’t afraid to violate
societal norms and rules
ii. Groups are creative when they are relaxed and having a good
time
III.
Enhancing Group Creativity
a. Brainstorming
i. Brainstorming defined: A procedure designed to tap
members’ creativity by asking them to generate as
many ideas as possible without evaluation
ii. Brainstorming guidelines:
1. Group previews the rules for brainstorming
2. The group is presented with a problem to solve
3. Members are encouraged to come up with as many
solutions as possible to the problem
a. Quantity is the goal
b. No evaluation
c. Don’t stop generating ideas too soon
4. All ideas are recorded so that the whole group can see
them
5. The ideas are evaluated at another session and can be
modified or combined with other ideas
b. Synectics
i. Synectics defined: A procedure designed to stimulate
creative thinking through use of metaphor and looking
for similarities in different things
ii. A variety of orientations can help trigger insights
1. Changing perspective
2. Looking for a direct comparison
3. Temporarily suspending reality
c. Mind Mapping
i. Mind mapping defined: a procedure designed to break
out of linear thinking into radiant thinking by free
association
ii. This process taps into members’ creativity by encouraging them
to make visual connections they would otherwise miss
iii. As with brainstorming, no criticism until after the mind map has
been developed
IV.
What Makes Thinking “Critical”?
a. Critical thinking defined: Systematic thinking using
evidence, reasoning, and logic to promote soundness
b. Evidence defined: Facts, data, opinions, and other
information that back a claim or conclusion
c. Arguments defined: Claims supported by evidence and
reasoning
V.
Enhancing Critical Thinking in a Group
a. Having the Right Attitude
i. Open-minded defined: Being willing to consider new
information and ideas, even if they contradict previous
beliefs
ii. Have a sense of “show me” skepticism that indicates members
want to think for themselves
1. Skeptical decision makers ask probing questions, which
are designed to help critical thinking by examining
information and reasoning in more depth
iii. Critical thinking is an active, rather than passive process of
testing information
b. Gathering Information – the ability to organize ideas
i. Assessing Information Needs
ii. Collecting Needed Resources
1. Direct Observation
2. Reading
3. The Internet
4. Electronic Database
5. Interviews
6. Other Sources
c. Evaluating Information
i. Determining the Meaning of What is Being Said
1. Distinguishing Fact from Opinion and Inference
a. Facts defined: Something that can be verified
by observation and is not arguable
b. Opinions defined: Inferences that go beyond
facts and contain some degree of probability
2. Identifying and Clarifying Ambiguous Terms
a. Ambiguous defined: A term that has more
than one possible meaning
3. Evaluating Opinions by Determining the Credibility of the
Source
a. Ask key questions to help decide how much trust to
place in an opinion
i. Is there any reason to suspect the person(s)
supplying the opinion of bias?
ii. Is the individual or other source, a
recognized, respected expert on the subject?
iii. Is the opinion consistent with other opinions
expressed by the same source?
4. Assessing the Accuracy and Worth of the Information
d. Checking for Errors in Reasoning
i. Fallacies are mistakes in reasoning and faulty reasoning
ii. Overgeneralizing is drawing a conclusion with insufficient
supporting data
1. To decide whether a generalization is a valid conclusion
or an overgeneralization, ask a few questions
a. How many cases is the conclusion based on?
b. Are there any exceptions to the conclusion?
c. What form of evidence is the source asking us to
accept: personal or other forms?
d. Is the generalization expressed as probability or in
“allness” terms?
iii. Attacking a Person Instead of the Argument moves the focus
from the issue to the speaker
iv. Confusing Causal Relationships suggests that A necessarily
causes B, but in reality A and B are relational not causal
v. Either-Or thinking asks people to choose between only two
options as if no other choices existed
vi. Incomplete Comparisons asks the audience to stretch a
similarity too far
1. Comparisons and analogies help the audience to
understand
2. Analogies: comparisons that help clarify ideas and issues
e. Avoiding groupthink
i. Symptoms of groupthink
1. Group overestimates its power
2. Group becomes closed minded
3. Group members feel pressure to conform
ii. Preventing groupthink
1. Encourage members to discuss the problem
2. Establish a norm of critical evaluation
a. Have a designated devil’s advocate
b. Devil’s advocate defined: a group member who
formally is expected to challenge ideas to foster
critical thinking
3. Prevent leaders of expressing their preferences early
4. Do not insulate the group from information
CHAPTER 7
I.
“Children of Springfield” case study
II.
A Systematic Procedure as the Basis for Problem Solving
a. Many ways to solve a problem
b. Best group solutions come from a systematic method of problem
solving
III.
Capturing the Problem in Problem Solving
a. How do we know a problem when we see one?
i. Problem defined: The difference between what exists
presently and what you expect or want
ii. Problem-solving defined: Everything you need to do to
move from your present undesirable situation to what
you want, including creating solutions and choosing
among them
iii. Decision-making defined: Choosing from available
options
iv. Every problem situation has three major components:
1. An undesirable existing situation
2. Desired situation or goal
3. Obstacles to change
b. Area of Freedom
i. Area of freedom defined: The amount of authority and
limitations given to a group
c. Characteristics of Problems
i. Task difficulty is the complexity of the problem
ii. Solution multiplicity is the possible ways to solve the problem
iii. Intrinsic interests are the group members’ interest in solving
the problem
iv. Member familiarity is the group members’ knowledge of the
problem
v. Acceptance level is the degree to which the solution must be
accepted by the people affected by the problem
d. Getting the Discussion Question Right
i. Identification of the problem depends on the extent to which
group members understand the fundamental elements of the
problem
ii. A variety of “other issues” can take the group off track
iii. Discussion Question defined: the central question of the
policy facing the group
iv. Steps to ensure the discussion question is clear:
1. Avoid either-or questions
2. Word questions as concretely as possible
3. Avoid suggesting the answer in a question
IV.
Effective Problem Solving and Decision Making
a. Functional theory defined: A theory of how communication
helps or hinders group problem solving and decision making
i. Three factors impacting the conditions needed for effective
problem solving
1. Task requirements
2. Effective communication
3. Willingness to review and reconsider group processes
V.
The Procedural Model of Problem Solving (P-MOPS)
a. Procedural Model of Problem Solving defined: A flexible
framework to guide each phase of the problem-solving
process
b. Five steps in this general problem-solving procedure:
i. Describing and analyzing the problem
1. Be sure you understand the charge precisely
a. Charge defined: The group’s assignment
2. State the problem as a single, clear problem question
3. Focus on the problem before discussing how to solve it
4. Describe the problem thoroughly
5. Make an outline and a schedule based on the Procedural
Model of Problem Solving
6. Summarize the problem as a group
7. Spotlighting Key Issues with Focus Groups
a. Focus group defined: An unstructured
technique in which members freely explore
thoughts and feelings about a topic
ii. Generating and explaining possible solutions
1. Avoid “group communication flaw,” which occurs when
groups hinder their ability to make good decisions by
closing down their problem solving discussion
2. Be an active participant observer discussed in chapter one
iii. Evaluating all solutions
1. Criteria for Evaluating Solutions are helpful to set
standards that any solution must meet, which facilitates
narrowing
2. Criteria defined: Standards and guidelines used to
evaluate ideas and solutions
3. Narrowing a Long List of Proposed Solutions
a. Three useful techniques include:
i. Combine any ideas that are similar or
overlapping
ii. Allow each member (including the leader) to
vote for his or her top three choices
iii. Give each member five small cards on which
to write the number or name of his or her five
preferred solutions, then the group discusses
the pros and cons of only the proposed
solutions with the highest ratings
4. Charting the Pros and Cons
5. Using Technology to Help Problem Solving
a. Group Support Systems (GSS) defined:
Computer-based system designed to improve
various aspects of group work
b. These types of software can be as good as
traditional group decision making
c. Some tasks lend themselves better to face-to-face
meetings and some tasks lend themselves well to
GSS, don’t make overarching conclusions of
effectiveness
d. An important key factor of success depends on user
familiarity
iv. Choosing the Best Solution
1. Groups go through predictable stages of decision making
a. Orientation stage is the group exploring the
problem
b. Conflict phase is the group arguing about various
options
c. Decision emergence is when the group gradually
moves toward consensus
d. Reinforcement refers to the complimenting that
members give each other after a job well done
2. Methods of making decisions
a. Decision is made by the group leader or designated
member
b. The Consultative method
c. Voting
d. Consensus defined: A decision all members
agree is the best they can all support but isn’t
necessarily everyone’s first choice
3. Testing a Tentative Solution with the RISK Technique
a. RISK technique defined: A technique to help
a group assess potential problems or risks
with a potential solution
b. Steps to RISK:
i. Proposed solution presented in detail;
members identify risks or problems with it
ii. Risks posted without evaluation on a chart in
round-robin fashion
iii. Master list of risks compiled and circulated to
all participants
iv. Second meeting held to discuss the list;
problems perceived as serious retained
v. Retained problems processed into an agenda
and handled as in the problem census
v. Implementing the Chosen Solution
1. During this stage the group answers the following
questions:
a. Who will do what, when, and how so that our
decision is enacted?
b. How will we write and present our report?
c. How will we word our motion to the membership
meeting, and who will speak in support of it?
d. What follow-up should we conduct to monitor how
well this solution is working?
2. Using PERT to Implement a Solution is helpful for groups
to track implementation
3. PERT (Program Evaluation and Review) defined:
Technique that helps group members manage and
keep track of a complex task
a. Following are the main points:
i. Determine the final step by describing how
the solution should appear when it is fully
implemented
ii. List all the events that must occur before the
final goal is realized
iii. Order these steps chronologically
iv. For complicated solutions, develop a flow
diagram of the procedure and all the steps in
it
v. Generate a list of all the activities, materials,
and people needed to accomplish each step
vi. Estimate the time needed to accomplish each
step; then add all the estimates to find the
total time needed for implementation of the
plan
vii. Compare the total time estimate with
deadlines or expectations and correct as
necessary by assigning more or less time and
people to complete a given step
viii. Determine which members will be responsible
for each step
CHAPTER 8
I.
“The Cask and Cleaver Work Crew” case study
II.
What is Conflict?
a. Conflict defined: discordant ideas or feelings are expressed
or experienced between two interdependent parties
III.
Myths about Conflict
a. Because conflict is harmful to a group, it should be avoided
i. Conflict can help members more fully understand a problem
ii. Conflict can improve the group’s decision
iii. Conflict, when handled correctly, can increase member
involvement
iv. Conflict can increase cohesiveness
b. Conflicts stem from misunderstandings and breakdown in
communication
i. While some conflict stems from misunderstandings, most
conflict stems from disagreement over values
ii. Suggesting that more communication is always the problem to
conflict can be harmful if the conflict is about values
c. All conflicts can be resolved if parties are willing to discuss the issues
i. Conflict over basic values is highly subjective – therefore less
likely resolvable
ii. Conflicts over scarce resources are also difficult to resolve
because it deals with physical limitations
iii. Conflicts over goals can sometimes be difficult, but maybe less
so than the other examples
iv. Focus in this text is on managing rather than resolving conflict.
IV.
Types of Conflict
a. Understanding the type of conflict will help your group to better
manage that conflict, there are two types: task and relational.
b. Task conflict defined: disagreement over ideas, meanings,
issues, and other matters relevant to the task (also known as
substantive conflict).
i. Task conflict is work related and the basis for effective decision
making and problem solving
ii. As discussed in previous chapters, members are encouraged to
disagree with one another because that disagreement produces
more discussion and more discussion produces better decisions.
c. Relational conflict defined: originates from interpersonal
power clashes, likes and dislikes unrelated to the group’s
task (also known as affective conflict).
i. Relational conflict is really about power struggles and tends to
detract from the group’s functioning
ii. Much relational conflict is rooted in one member’s acting as if
she or he is superior and another member’s refusal to accept
this difference in status or power.
iii. Group members that don’t carry similar workloads or make
similar contributions may spark relational conflict
V.
Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC) and Conflict Types
a. The use of computers by groups is a way to reduce inequity and
increase member contribution – which helps manage conflict
b. Studies have shown that when given proper “get to know each other
time” group’s using forms of CMC will experience less task and
relational conflict when the technology is used correctly.
c. Task and relational conflict are not mutually exclusive or always
distinct – sometimes they go together and it is difficult to separate
the two
d. Task conflict is needed in the group, but relational conflict should be
managed early to avoid destructive patterns that harm the group’s
functioning
VI.
Managing Conflict in the Group
a. Conflict-Management Styles
b. No one “best way” to handle all conflict – this is situational
i. Avoidance
1. Avoidance defined: Conflict style describing a
person’s unwillingness to confront or engage in
conflict
2. When people/relationships are involved in a conflict,
group members tend to use this style. As the conflict
relates more to the task, group members tend to be more
willing to work together
3. If the issue is not very important or the group’s decision
will not be hurt by your failing to speak up, avoidance
may be appropriate
ii. Accommodation
1. Accommodation defined: Conflict style describing
a person’s willingness to engage in conflict;
however, she or he backs away from the conflict
by giving in to appease the other party
2. Somewhat like avoidance in terms of downplaying your
own needs, but as you accommodate you work harder to
meet the needs of others
3. Members who do this and really disagree with the group
may find themselves arguing over trivial points later
iii. Competition
1. Competition defined: Conflict style showing a
preference for coming out ahead in the conflict at
the expense of the other party
2. Most of the time highly competitive management has a
negative effect on the group
3. Competitive tactics often escalate and can result in total
shutdown of communication
4. If the issue is important, you should compete, don’t
disregard your basic beliefs/values because you don’t
want to speak up
iv. Collaboration
1. Collaboration defined: Conflict style showing a
preference for working with the other to find a
solution that pleases both parties
2. Members invest a great deal of energy in searching for a
solution that will satisfy everyone
3. Group members whose communication is collaborative
are more satisfied with their group outcomes than
members who avoid conflict
4. Not all groups have the time/energy to collaborate
v. Compromise
1. Compromise defined: Conflict style showing a
preference for giving a little and gaining a little to
manage the issue
2. Unlike collaboration, in this management style, parties
give up something to get something
3. When collaboration is impossible due to time constraints,
compromise may be beneficial
4. A compromise can only work if all parties feel the solution
is fair
vi. Working with conflict management styles
1. Approaches that integrate goals and needs tend to result
in better group decisions
2. Pay attention to the way a group deals with conflict, if
you see potential for problems, bring that up earlier
rather than later.
3. Effectiveness and appropriateness will help you to
determine if a conflict management style is working
c. Expressing Disagreement Ethically
i. Express your disagreements
ii. Express your disagreements in a timely way
iii. Express your disagreements with rhetorical sensitivity toward
the rest of the group
iv. React to disagreement with a spirit of inquiry, not
defensiveness
d. Maximizing Your Chances to Influence the Group
i. Make sure your arguments are of high quality
ii. Make sure your arguments are consistent
iii. If you are a member of a subgroup, make sure all the subgroup
members publicly agree with each other
e. Nominal Group Technique
i. Nominal group technique defined: This technique
alternates between individual work and group work to
help a group hear from every member when discussing
a controversial issue
ii. This technique can be used by a group to help members reach
a decision on a controversial issue without bitterness from a
win-lose conflict
iii. Based on the premise that sometimes people working
individually in the presence of others generate more ideas and
also that, sometimes, dominant members inhibit participation
by quieter members.
iv. Steps include:
1. The problem, situation, or question is stated clearly and
concisely
2. The coordinator asks participants to generate a list of the
features or characteristics of the problem or question
3. The coordinator gives the group 5 to 15 minutes to work
silently
4. Each suggestion is listed and recorded in round-robin
fashion on a chart visible to all members
5. Members clarify the items but do not yet evaluate them
6. Each person chooses his or her top-ranked items
7. The group engages in full discussion of the top-rated
items
8. A decision is reached
f. Steps in Principled Negotiation
i. Principled negotiation defined: One way of dealing with
conflict that promotes finding ways to meet the needs
of conflicting parties and respecting their relationship
ii. Steps include
1. Separate the people from the problem
2. Focus on interests, not positions
3. Invent new options for mutual gain
4. Insist on using objective criteria
CHAPTER 9
I.
“The College Service Club” case study
II.
Leadership and Leaders
a. Leadership
i. Leadership defined: The use of communication to
modify attitudes and behaviors of members to meet
group goals and needs
ii. Leadership is accomplished through communication
iii. Leadership consists of those behaviors that help the group
achieved shared goals
iv. Group leaders must be adaptable to the changing conditions of
the group
b. Sources of Power and Influence
i. Influence defined: The use of interpersonal power to
modify the actions and attitudes of members
ii. Legitimate power defined: Influence based on a
member’s title or position in the group
iii. Reward power defined: Influence derived from
someone’s ability to give members what they want and
need
iv. Punishment power defined: Influence derived from
someone’s ability to take away what members want
and value
v. Coercion defined: Using threats or force to make a
member comply
vi. Expert power defined: Interpersonal influence that
stems from someone’s perceived knowledge or skill
vii. Referent power defined: Influence due to a person’s
ability to be liked and admired
viii. Information power defined: Degree of control a person
has over information
ix. Ecological power defined: Indirect influence derived
from a person’s ability to control how work is organized
and the physical environment of the group
x. A leader’s power usually stems from a combination of these
influences
c. What is a Leader?
i. Leader defined: Any person in the group who uses
interpersonal influence to help the group achieve its
goals
1. All members of the group can and should supply some of
the needed leadership to the group
2. A leader does not need to hold a particular title or office
3. Communication is the process through which a person
actually leads others
ii. Designated leader defined: An appointed or elected
leader whose title (chair, president) identifies him or
her as leader
iii. Emergent leader defined: A person who starts out with
the same status as other members but gradually
emerges as an informal leader in the eyes of the other
members
1. Studies suggest that communication relevant to the
group’s task is the one factor that significantly predicts
leadership emergence
2. Some other behaviors related to leadership emergence
are: effective listening, self-monitoring, being extraverted
and sociable, and intelligence.
3. Biological sex is less of a predictor of leader emergence
than psychological gender, for example, task-oriented
women emerge as group leaders as often as taskoriented men.
a. In mixed-gender groups, masculine and
androgynous members emerged as leaders more
often than feminine and undifferentiated members
b. Groups choose leaders based on performance
4. Emergent leaders influence primarily through referent,
expert, reward, informational, and ecological power
5. The person who emerges as a leader in one group may
not emerge as a leader in another group
III.
Myths about Leadership
a. Leadership is a personality trait that individuals possess in varying
degrees
i. No trait differentiates leaders from members
ii. Not all leadership situations call for the same trait
iii. Leadership consists of behaving in ways that can be learned
b. There is an ideal leadership style, no matter what the situation
i. Autocratic leaders are primarily task-oriented people who
personally make the decisions for the group
1. High autocratic leaders can stifle group members who are
expert, creative and enthusiastic
2. High autocratic leaders’ groups can be very productive
ii. Democratic leaders want all the group members to participate
in decision making
1. Members of groups with democratic leaders tend to be
more satisfied and participate more actively
2. These members also tend to demonstrate more
commitment to the group’s decisions and are more
innovative
iii. Laissez-Faire leaders have an extreme hands off approach to
leadership
1. Laissez-Faire led groups tend to waste time without the
structure provided by other leader types
2. Only groups of highly motivated experts tend to be more
productive and satisfied with laissez-faire leaders
iv. Transactional leadership involves a leader’s willingness to trade
or exchange one resource for another
v. Transformative leadership involves a leader’s ability to inspire
followers to act toward a greater good beyond their own selfinterests
vi. Charismatic leadership is focused on the leader and his/her
extraordinary qualities that move followers to act
vii. Suggesting that one leadership style is beneficial overlooks the
complexities of groups as open systems, it also assumes a
particular group will have the same needs – these are not
helpful to understanding how leadership works in the group
c. Leaders get other people to do the work for them
IV.
Figuring Out the Dynamics of Leadership
a. The Functional Concept of Group Leadership
i. Functional concept defined: Groups need to have
certain functions performed, and all group members can
and should perform needed functions
1. This approach requires leaders to diagnose what
functions are needed and to supply them
2. This approach also assumes that all members can learn a
variety of behaviors and can function as leaders in certain
circumstances
b. The Contingency Concept of Group Leadership
i. Contingency concept defined: Features of the situation
determine appropriate leadership behavior
1. Leaders should consider several factors before deciding
on the specific leadership services appropriate for the
group
a. Type of task
b. How well the members work together
c. How well the members work with the leader
2. Hersey and Blanchard’s model of situational leadership
will help leaders to recognize which situation calls forth
which leadership style
3. Use the “apply now” textbox on page 268 to apply the
concept of contingency leadership
c. The Distributed Concept of Group Leadership
i. Distributed leadership defined: Each group member
can and should provide leadership services to a group
1. Leadership activity by all members has been found to be
more related to productivity than activity of the
designated leader alone
2. Tensions arise, two such tensions are control from the
leader and control from the group as well as the tensions
between the demand of task work and nontask work
3. When discussing control it is important to remember we
are talking about a constant flux of when to let the group
operate on its own and when the leader should provide
guidelines for operating.
V.
What Good Leaders Do
a. Establishes the group goal and keeps group on track
b. Mold group into a team
c. Never lose sight of goal and progress towards it
d. Facilitate each member’s leadership potential
e. Do not take their leadership for granted
f. What group members expect leaders to do
i. Perform Administrative Duties
1. Planning for Meetings
a. Define the purpose of the meeting and
communicate it clearly to the members
b. Make sure members know the place, starting time,
and closing time for the meeting
c. If special resource people are needed at the
meeting, advise and prepare them
d. Make all necessary physical arrangements
2. Following up on Meetings
a. Keep track of member assignments
b. Serve as liaison with other groups
ii. Managing the Group’s Written Communication
1. Agenda defined: list of items to be discussed at
meeting
2. Keep personal notes
3. Keep group records
a. Minutes defined: Formal notes recording
what occurs at each meeting
b. Without written records, members will
misremember what was reported and disagree
about what they decided
4. Keep a permanent file copies of group written material
v. Leading Group Discussions
1. Initiating Discussions
a. Help reduce primary tensions, especially with new
groups
b. Briefly review the purpose of the meeting, the
specific outcomes desired, and the area of freedom
of the group
c. Give members informational and organizational
handouts
d. See that special roles are established as needed
e. Suggest procedures to follow
f. Ask a clear question to help members focus on the
first substantive issue on the agenda
2. Structuring Discussions
a. Keep the group goal-oriented; watch for digressions
and topic changes
b. Put the discussion or problem-solving procedure on
the board or in a handout
c. Summarize each major step or decision
d. Structure the group’s time
e. Bring the discussion to a definite close
3. Equalizing Opportunity to Participate
a. Address your comments to the group rather than to
individuals
b. Control dominating or long-winded speakers
c. Encourage less-talkative members to participate
d. Avoid commenting after each member’s remark
e. Bounce questions of interpretation back to the
group
f. Remain neutral during arguments
4. Stimulating Creative Thinking
a. Suggest discussion techniques that are designed to
tap a group’s creativity
b. When the flow of ideas has dried up, encourage the
group to search for a few more alternatives
c. Discuss the components of a problem one at a time
d. Watch for suggestions that open up new areas of
thinking, then pose a general question about them
e. Force an alternative perspective or switch senses
5. Stimulating Critical Thinking
a. Encourage group members to evaluate information
and reasoning
b. See that all group members understand and accept
the standards, criteria, or assumptions used in
making judgments
c. See that all proposed solutions are tested
thoroughly before they are accepted as final group
decisions
d. Establish a devil’s advocate individual or competing
subgroups to poke holes in potential solutions
6. Fostering Meeting-to-Meeting Improvement
a. Review personal notes of the meeting
b. Decide how the meeting could have been improved
c. Establish specific improvements as goals for the
next meeting
d. Adjust behavior accordingly
vi. Developing the Group
1. Establishing a Climate of Trust
a. Establish norms that build trust
b. Function as a coordinator rather than a dictator
c. Encourage members to get to know each other
2. Developing Teamwork and Promoting Cooperation
a. Speak of us and we, rather than I and you
b. Develop a name or another symbol of group
identification
c. Watch for evidence of hidden agenda items that
conflict with group goals
d. Use appropriate conflict management approaches
and procedures
e. Share rewards with the group
f. Lighten up; share a laugh or joke with the group
VII.
Encouraging Distributed Leadership
a. Be perceptive; analyze the needs of the group
b. Adapt your behavior to fit the needs of the group; be a completer
c. Focus primarily on task needs rather than social relationships
d. Balance your active participation with good listening
e. Express yourself clearly and concisely
f. Be knowledgeable about group processes and group techniques
VIII. Ethical Guidelines for Group Leaders
a. Do not lie or intentionally send deceptive or harmful messages
b. Place your concern for the group and for others ahead of your own
personal gain
c. Be respectful of an sensitive to the other members
d. Stand behind the other members when they carry out policies and
actions approved by the leader and the group
e. Treat members with equal respect, regardless of sex, ethnicity, or
social background
f. Establish clear policies that all group members are expected to follow
g. Follow the group rules, just as you expect the others to do
CHAPTER 10
I.
“Food for the Homeless” case study
II.
The Planning Stage
a. Your Audience
i. Audience analysis defined: Studying the unique
character of who will receive a presentation in order
to adapt how a speech will be delivered and what will
be presented
1. If audience is unfamiliar with a topic, stick to basic
facts and explain why the audience should care about
the topic
2. If your audience is opposed to your group’s position
find ways to establish common ground and relate to
the audiences’ perspectives
ii. You can gather information in many ways: interviews and
surveys utilizing both open-ended and closed-ended
questions.
iii. If you have a captive audience, be sure your presentation is
enthusiastic and has information on how the topic is relevant
b. Your Occasion
i. Room arrangements and technology available
ii. Time of the event and time allotted for you to speak
iii. Major purpose or context of the event
iv. Amount of expected audience members
v. Clarify if there are specific goals of your presentation
c. Your Purpose
i. Informative speech defined: A speech given with the
primary purpose of teaching something to an
audience
ii. Persuasive speech defined: A type of speech
containing a call to action
iii. Entertainment speech defined: A speech with the
main purpose of amusing the audience
d. Your Subject or Topic
i. The best topics come from your own experiences
ii. Brainstorming is helpful in coming up with good topic ideas
iii. Keep your time limit in mind when selecting your topic
e. Member Strengths and Difficulties
i. What information do members have about the topic chosen?
ii. What contacts/research leads might members have
iii. Also consider strengths and weaknesses of group members
when it comes to oral presentations
f. Supplemental Logistics
i. What supplies, if any, will you need?
ii. Is the hardware/technology needed available?
iii. Bring everything that you could possible need the day of
presentations – be over-prepared rather than scrambling to
find something at the last minute
g. Types of Group Oral Presentations
i. Panel discussion defined: One of the three kinds of
group public discussions in which panel members
often bring different points of view to the discussion
1. The procedures to follow for a panel discussion
include:
a. Select a moderator
i. Moderator defined: A participant in a
public group presentation whose main
responsibility is to regulate the discussion
and guide any audience participation
b. Make an outline of all the important points the
group wants to cover and decide in what order
to cover them
c. Make appropriate physical arrangements:
i. Seat panelists so they can see each other
and have eye contact with the audience; a
semicircle is appropriate
ii. Seat panelists at a table or desk so it is
easy for them to write notes
iii. Identify panelists with a name card on the
table in front of them or their names on a
blackboard behind them
iv. Place microphones for panelists/audience
participation
v. Make provisions for panelists to present
visual aids
d. Panelists should not hesitate to disagree with
each other, but should do so politely
ii. Symposium defined: One of the three kinds of group
public discussions in which participants deliver
uninterrupted speeches on a selected topic
1. Procedures for a symposium are as follows:
a. Select a moderator to introduce the speakers,
introduce the topic, and make concluding
remarks
b. Select a small group of experts to present
different aspects of the issue
c. Appropriate physical arrangements should be
made
iii. Forum defined: Structured audience participation
after a speech, symposium, panel, or debate
1. Some suggestions for the moderator include:
a. Let audience know that a forum will follow the
panel or symposium so they can prepare their
questions or comments
b. Make sure everyone understands any special
rules of the forum segment
c. Make sure everyone knows when the forum will
end and do not accept questions once that time
has been reached – offer a warning before the
last question or two
d. Try to ensure that a diversity of views is offered
e. Make sure everyone can hear questions and
comments
f. Following the last question or comment, offer a
brief summary and thank everyone for their
participation
III.
The Organizing Stage
a. Delegate Duties
i. This is not solely the job of the leader
ii. After the group takes stock of each members’ strengths and
weaknesses duties should be divvied up according to how
each member can help the group achieve its goal.
b. Gather Verbal and Visual Materials
i. Verbal Materials
1. Examples
2. Statistics
3. Testimony
ii. Visual Materials
1. Object
2. Model
3. Picture or video
4. Map
5. Chart
6. Handout
7. Chalkboard
8. Multimedia
iii. Organize Materials and Presentation
1. Introduction
a. Introduction defined: The first of three
components of a speech designed to catch
the attention of the audience and show a
need to listen, clarifies the main point of
the speech
b. There are a number of ways to gain the
audience’s attention, sometimes called the
attention step, for example:
i. Use humor
ii. Ask a question
iii. Make a striking statement
iv. Offer a striking quotation
v. Tell a short story
2. Body
a. Body defined: The second of three
components of a speech where the main
ideas are introduced and developed
i. The following are some of the most
common patterns of organization
1. Problem-solution
2. Chronological
3. Spatial
4. Cause and effect or effect to cause
5. Topical
3. Conclusion
a. Conclusion defined: The third of three
components of a speech that summarizes
the ideas a speaker wishes the audience to
remember
IV.
The Presenting Stage
a. Check your language
i. Ensure clarity – be sure your language is concrete rather
than abstract
ii. Ensure vividness – be sure to use figurative and descriptive
language that captures the audience’s attention
iii. Ensure appropriateness – consider the audience and the
occasion
b. Practice aloud
c. Types of Speeches
i. Manuscript: A speech delivered word-for-word from a
manuscript
ii. Memorization: A speech delivered from memory with no
notes
iii. Impromptu: A speech delivered without preparation or
notes
iv. Extemporaneous: A speech that is prepared and delivered
from notes and not read from a manuscript
V.
What Makes a Good Oral Presentation?
a. The four classical canons of rhetoric include:
i. Invention
1. Invention defined: A canon of rhetoric
identifying the raw materials of the speech and
how they are adapted to a particular audience
ii. Arrangement
1. Arrangement defined: One of the canons of
rhetoric specifying how a speech is ordered or
put together
iii. Style
1. Style defined: One of the canons of rhetoric
referring to the individual manner in which a
speech is delivered
iv. Delivery
1. Delivery defined: One of the canons of rhetoric
pertaining to how the presentation is given
v. Memory
b. These canons can be used to render an overall evaluation of any
presentation, to compare it to other presentations you have heard,
or to offer suggestions for improvements