CHAPTER 2
ENVIRONMENTAL
PLANNING
Evolution of Planning in the United States
Planning involves setting objectives, gathering and
analyzing information, and formulating and evaluating
policies, projects or designs to meet the objectives
The author uses his Table 2.1 to summarize the evolution
of planning policy as applied to planning problems in
the United States
Evolution of Planning in the United States, cont
1850-1950 (text – Design) changing urban morphology
- Borchert and transportation / technology
- centralized vs de-centralized cities
1925+ (text – Regulation) zoning
- NYC Central Park
- Cleveland Euclid, Oh vs Ambler Realty Co
- issues of exclusionary vs discriminatory
Evolution of Planning in the United States, cont
1940+ (text: Applied Science) problem solving through spatial
analysis and application of theory
- distance decay
- gravity (interaction) models
- central place
- input-output models
- concentric zones model
- sector model
- multi-nuclei model
Evolution of Planning in the United States, cont
1965+ (text: Politics) social movements / political action /
advocacy
- a VERY confusing time for planning
- greater de-centralization of authority / interest vs
greater Federal control – NEPA, EPA
- Federal highway funding for interstates and
Circumference Highways vs “greenbelts”
Evolution of Planning in the United States, cont
1965+ (text: Politics) social movements / political action /
advocacy
- stopping “urban flight” vs gentrification
(Georgetown Syndrome)
- expanded natural / wilderness areas vs
expanded “multiple use”
Evolution of Planning in the United States, cont
1975+ (text: Communication) information / participation
- “grassroots activism”; even MORE confusing
… end the cruelty of meat factories – support open range
stock production vs protect rangeland ecosystems by
ending commercial stockraising
… end the pollution of commercial poultry raising vs open
range poultry? NIMBY
… end the barbarian practice of eating meat – live vegetarian
vs end the use of genetically produced hybrid foods
… end the practice of chemical fertilizers and pesticides – grow
organic vs ? Where do we find the nutrients?
Evolution of Planning in the United States, cont
1990+ (text: Collaboration)
cooperation vs coercion
200+ (text: Integration of Policy, Science, Collaboration,
Design)
- text calls it a rebirth of design innovation; a
product of information revolution
- also a revisionist period ex: TN Chapter 1101
Evolution of Planning in the United States, cont
Text relates that today environmental planning applies planning
procedures / practices to environmental protection and problem
solving
- the practice of environmental planning may be divided into three
forms;
(1) reactive – “remediation and restoration planning”
(2) proactive – “pre-emptive planning”
(3) integrative – “holistic planning”
- the environmental planner is a generalist with specific skills /
expertise in a resource
Approaches to Planning and the Planning Process
-
In planning, knowing what needs to be done, and how
to do it, are not necessarily easy or straight forward
… extensive literature (public and professional) has
been written on the topic
… much scholarly debate has resulted over differing
planning approaches
-
The author defines four basic approaches the planning process:
(1) rational-comprehensive – based on the scientific
method; comprised of five basic steps:
objectives, information, alternatives, impact assessment,
evaluation
(2) incremental approach – recognizes human knowledge and
understanding; focuses on short-term goal / objective
satisfaction, small sequential actions
… adaptive planning fits here
(3) participatory approach – inherent is the belief that
neither No. (1) nor (2) deal explicitly with diverse
stakeholder perspectives and conflicting values
… foundation is informed involvement of the public
(4) advocacy approach – founded on two ideas:
(a) interested stakeholders frequently ally
themselves in public interest / action groups
(b) trained advocates are frequently necessary for the
under-represented, and for conflict resolution
To illustrate the environmental planning process, the text
offers:
Process for Environmental Planning (p. 19)
O. Scoping (Stakeholder Issues)
Identify
1. Identification of Issues, Opportunities, Concerns, Objectives,
Criteria, Uncertainties (IOC)
(stakeholder Criteria)
Identify
Participation
Conflict Resolution
-
(2) Analysis of Planning Situation
(Stakeholder Local Knowledge)
Scope
Identify
Participation
Conflict Resolution
(3) Formulation of Alternatives
(Stakeholder Alternatives)
Scope
Participation
(4) Assessment of Impacts
(Stakeholder Assessment)
Scope
Participation
(5) Evaluation and Selection of Plan
(Stakeholder Evolution)
Participation
Conflict Resolution
(6) Implementation, Monitoring, Evaluation, Modification
(Stakeholder Implementation)
Participation
Basic summary of the planning process (Box 2.2; p. 20)
Stage
Steps
Planning Purpose
Inventory
0;2
What do we have
Needs assessment
1;2
What are our problems,
needs, objectives
Management
3;4;5
What should we do
Strategies
Implementation
6
Let’s do it
And Monitoring
-
Interdisciplinary Consideration of Environmental
Planning and Management
-
The complexity of environmental problems requires
interdisciplinary solutions
--- management borrows from a myriad of diverse
disciplines
… ex: natural sciences; engineering; economics; law;
political science; ethics; etc
--- planners must understand and apply a range of disciplinary
perspectives
Environmental Science and Engineering
“Controlling how designed systems and manenvironment interactions to protect and enhance
human health and environmental quality requires an
understanding of how natural systems work and how
designed systems and technologies can lessen the
adverse effects of these interactions and enhance
environmental quality.” (p. 20)
--- author cites examples of:
(a) soil erosion – soil mechanics; soil formation; erodibility
analysis; land use practices; etc
(b) air quality – pollutant levels and effects on human
health (laboratory and epidemiological studies); cost
effectiveness of various engineering treatment
systems; relations between emissions levels and air
quality; etc
Environmental Economics
- Public policy decisions have long been based on the theory of
theory of welfare economics and economic efficiency
… social welfare is improved if the total gains among those
who benefit exceeds the total losses of those adversely
effected
... author – free market price and exchange mechanisms
generally fail to allocate resources effectively
according to social welfare test of economic efficiency
… many effects of market activity occur as market
externalities
Economic Instruments for Environmental Protection and
Natural Resource Management
Common economic instruments and concerns of
protection and management easily fall into seven
categories:
(1) Property Rights
- ownership rights
- water rights
- development rights
Common economic instruments and concerns, cont:
(2) Market Creation (“The Tradeables”)
- emissions permits
- catch quotas
- development quotas
- water (or resource) shares
- land permits
- offsets/credits
Common economic instruments and concerns, cont:
(3) Fiscal Instruments
- pollution taxes
- investment tax credits
- input taxes
- accelerated depreciation
- export taxes
- import tariffs
- royalties
- land use tax

Common economic instruments and concerns, cont:
(4) Charge Systems
- pollution charges
- administrative charges
- user charges
- impact fees
- access taxes
- road tolls
Common economic instruments and concerns, cont:
(5) Financial Instruments
- financial subsidies
- soft loans
- grants
- subsidized interest
- eco/environmental funds
Common economic instruments and concerns, cont:
(6) Liability Systems
- legal liability
- natural resource damage liability
- enforcement incentives
Common economic instruments and concerns, cont:
(7) Bonds & Deposit Refund Systems
- environmental performance bonds
- waste delivery bonds
- land reclamation bonds
- deposit refund systems
- Threats of externalities and the failure of free market
mechanisms, decisions of resource use / pollution
control have relied on more… the explicit comparisons
of quantifiable (measured or estimated in dollar terms)
--- federal projects still largely based on
- As a concept cost-benefit makes sense – weigh the cost
and benefit of a project or program against the
benefits expected
-
In reality, cost-benefit has some inherent (and
unshakeable problems)
(1) equity – the distribution of cost and benefit to effected
individuals
(2) risk and uncertainty – some project / program variables
are not easy to measure definitively
(3) how effects are valued over time – dollar today is valued
greater than a dollar tomorrow
(4) non-economic effects – it is difficult to place a value on
change that has not occurred
-
This has given rise to a particularly specialized field of
economics ecological economics
… to improve the economic valuation of environmental resources for
better accounting in cost-benefit / in planning / in decision making
… resources / amenities are valued in terms of:
(a) use-consumptive or non-consumptive
(b) option value
----- existence values
----- bequest
----- insurance value
--- as with cost-benefit, attempts to quantify limitations - societal values
- Other economic issues in environmental planning:
(1) market mechanisms
(2) cost-effectiveness
(3) financing
… private industry
… government
… revenue bonds
… innovative finance and transfer methods
-
“Despite the analytical limitations already discussed, economic
market forces remain among the most important determinants
of consumer and producer decisions.” (p. 21)
--- market mechanisms can work in concert with regulatory
approaches to protect the environment (p. 21)
ex: “… stricter regulations on landfilling of wastes raise the cost of
disposal so that recycling programs become more
cost-effective.” (p. 22)
[unfortunately market forces can act against regulation]
… regulation spurs higher prices and greater exploration
Environmental Evaluation
- Evaluation involves using objective assessment to assign values
to options, compare trade-offs, resolve conflict and make
choices
… perhaps most important, but difficult, element of
environmental planning
- Economics by itself cannot provide the basis for decision
making
(1) analytical limitations
(2) inability to capture non-user and utilitarian environment values
Assessing / evaluating environmental data is complicated by
frequent need to combine and compare information that is often
subjective and commensurable
--- wilderness vs a national park
--- a south Florida swamp vs Palm Beach or Miami
--- a wild Columbia River vs dams and NW Pacific power
--- Nevada ranch country vs Las Vegas hiring thousands of
workers and pumping billions of dollars into the
economy
Evaluation uses a number of assessment methods
… useful to distinguish as:
(1) “Partial” techniques – aim to determine relative
importance, quality, or value of a specific
environmental component;
may be used to evaluate changes in specific
environmental conditions ;
many utilize a sum-of-weighted-factors
Evaluation uses a number of assessment methods, cont
(2) “Comprehensive” techniques
aim to assess a range of economic, cultural
and environmental effects of alternatives
and to compare and often combine them to
rank alternatives on their relative social
worth