Cryptic Impact: Visual Detection of Corona Light and Avoidance of Power Lines by
Reindeer
Rrf: Tyler et al. • Avoidance of Power Lines by Reindeer
Nicholas J. C. TYLER,1 Centre for Saami Studies, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, N9037 Tromsø, Norway
Karl-Arne STOKKAN, Department of Arctic and Marine Biology, UiT The Arctic
University of Norway, N-9037 Tromsø, Norway
Christopher R. HOGG, Moorfields Eye Hospital, London EC1V 2PD, United Kingdom
Christian NELLEMANN, 2 UNEP GRID Arendal, N-2615 Lillehammer, Norway
Arnt Inge VISTNES, Department of Physics, University of Oslo, N-0316 Oslo, Norway
1
E-mail: nicholas.tyler@uit.no
2
Present address: RHIPTO Rapid Response - Norwegian Center For Global Analyses,
Løkkegate 9, N-2615 Lillehammer, Norway
SUPPORTING INFORMATION
Contents

Barrier effects and avoidance.

List of crepuscular/nocturnal mammalian predators of reindeer/caribou (Rangifer
tarandus).

Table 1. Documented incidences of barrier effects and avoidance involving mammals at
high voltage power lines.

Literature cited.
1
BARRIER EFFECTS AND AVOIDANCE
Linear infrastructure may influence movement through barrier effects (i.e., hindrance to
passage) and avoidance:
Barrier Effects
Barrier effects are apparent at fences (Fynn and Bonyongo 2010, Kaczensky et al. 2011, Gadd
2012, Davies-Mostert et al. 2013), pipelines (Dunne and Quinn 2009), and artificial bodies of
water (Rautenstrauch and Krausman 1989, Nellemann et al. 2003), which completely block
the passage of animals. Roads, railways, and linear cuttings (though not necessarily
insurmountable obstacles) may nevertheless restrict movement (Skogland 1986, Mader et al.
1990, Chubbs et al. 1993, Goosem and Marsh 1997, Forman and Alexander 1998, Smith et al.
2000, Trombulak and Frissell 2000, Vistnes et al. 2004, Cameron et al. 2005, Epps et al.
2005, Kuehn et al. 2007, Wilson et al. 2007, Xia et al. 2007, Strevens et al. 2008, Carthew et
al. 2013, Ito et al. 2013, Courbin et al. 2014). Barrier effects are attributed to animals’
suspicion of noise or movement (Kight and Swaddle 2011, Montgomery et al. 2012, LeBlond
et al. 2013, McClure et al. 2013, Lima et al. 2015) and their reluctance to move across
unfamiliar surfaces or to expose themselves in the open, or a combination of these factors
(Keller and Largiadèr 2003, Jaeger et al. 2005, McGregor et al. 2008, Panzacchi et al. 2013).
Avoidance
Avoidance, evident as a reduction in the abundance of focal species near infrastructure, is a
behavioral response induced by the sight, sound, or smell of humans–human artefacts either
directly perceived or associated through learning with infrastructure (Dyer et al. 2001, Barber
et al. 2011, Brown et al. 2012, Shannon et al. 2014). It is a graded response: levels of
avoidance, which may exceed 90% at source (Mahoney and Schaefer 2002, Panzacchi et al.
2
2013), decrease with increasing distance from source (Laurance et al. 2006) but increase with
density of infrastructure (Vistnes et al. 2001) and with the level of disturbance (LeBlond et al.
2013, but see McGregor et al. 2008). Zones of avoidance around infrastructure range from
tens of meters in birds and small mammals (Pruett et al. 2009, Planillo and Malo 2013,
Roedenbeck and Voser 2008) to between 0.1 and 5 km in large mammals (Mahoney and
Schaefer 2002; Laurance et al. 2006; Nellemann et al. 2003, 2007; Weir et al. 2007; Helle et
al. 2012; Laurian et al. 2012; Leblond et al. 2013) and sometimes substantially more (Johnson
et al. 2005, Dahle et al. 2008, Boulanger et al. 2012). Avoidance results in functional loss of
habitat that is frequently several-hundred-fold greater than the real loss caused by the
infrastructure per se (i.e., owing to ground clearance, etc.; see James and Stuart-Smith 2000,
Dyer et al. 2001, Anttonen et al. 2011, Polfus et al. 2011).
3
LIST OF CREPUSCULAR/NOCTURNAL MAMMALIAN PREDATORS OF
REINDEER/CARIBOU (Rangifer tarandus)
Bear (Ursus ssp.; Boertje et al. 1988, Mowat and Heard 2006).
Cougar (Puma concolor; Wittmer 2004).
Lynx (Lynx lynx; Andrén et al. 2011, Mattisson et al. 2014).
Wolf (Canis lupus; Dale et al. 1994, Kojola et al. 2004, Hebblewhite et al. 2007).
Wolverine (Gulo gulo; Wittmer 2004, Andrén et al. 2011).
4
Table 1. Documented incidences of barrier effects and avoidance involving mammals at high-voltage power lines.
Species
Common name
Infrastructure
kV
Site
Effecta
Habitat
Attributed cause
Source
Structural changes
Joyal et al. 1984
changeb
Alces alces
moose
power line
230, 735
Quebec, Canada
Av.
Yes
in vegetation.
Antechinus
brown antechinus
power line
33, 132
stuartii
Currambene State
Bar.
Yes
Forest,
Structural changes
Strevens 2007
in vegetation.
Jerrawangala
National Park,
Australia
Rattus fuscipes
Australian bush rat
power line
33, 132
Currambene State
Bar.
Yes
Forest,
Structural changes
Strevens 2007
in vegetation.
Jerrawangala
National Park,
Australia
Equus hemionus
Asiatic wild ass
railway, power
380
Av. and
line
Procapra
Mongolian gazelle
gutturosa
Pantholops
Tibetan antelope
hodgsonii
Rangifer tarandus
railway, power
No
Ito et al. 2013
No
Ito et al. 2013
Bar.
380
Av. and
line
Bar.
power line
Bar.
No
railway, road,
reindeer/caribou
power line
Human activity,
Xia et al. 2007
traffic.
66
Repparfjord,
Av.
No
Norway
Presence of
Vistnes and Nellemann 2001
infrastructure
alone, even in the
absence of human
activity or traffic.
Rangifer tarandus
reindeer/caribou
power line, road
300, 420
Setesdal-
Av.
No
Ryfylkeheiene,
Presence of
Nellemann et al. 2003
infrastructure.
Norway
Rangifer tarandus
reindeer/caribou
power line
66
North Ottadalen
Av.
No
Reimers et al. 2007
(north, south),
Norway
5
Rangifer tarandus
reindeer/caribou
power lines, roads
n.d.c
Six populations in
Av.
No
southern Norway
Integrated effects
Panzacchi et al. 2013
of the presence of
infrastructure and
human activity
adjusted to local
ecological
conditions.
Rangifer tarandus
reindeer/caribou
power line
66, 132,
300
Nord Ottadalen
Bar.
No
Potential
(east, west),
psychological
Norway
effect of danger
Vistnes et al. 2004
associated with
man-made
structures.
Rangifer tarandus
reindeer/caribou
power line
132, 300
Snøhetta (east,
west), Norway
Bar.
No
Potential
Vistnes et al. 2004
psychological
effect of danger
associated with
man-made
structures.
a
Av. = avoidance; Bar. = Barrier effect.
b
Habitat change: whether construction of the power line involved substantial modification of habitat such as a linear cutting through forest or jungle.
c
n.d. = no data.
6
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10