Chapter 2
Second Language
Teaching & Learning
Wright, W. E. (2010). Foundations for Teaching
English Language Learners: Research, Theory, Policy,
and Practice. Philadelphia: Caslon Publishing.
Guiding Questions
1. What do teachers need to know about
language, and why do they need to
know it?
2. What does it mean to “know a
language”?
3. How do people acquire language?
4. What do different theories of second
language acquisition tell us?
5. How would you describe your approach
to second language teaching?
ELL Student Language Challenges
• 1. Vihn has difficulty pronouncing th
words. Does he have a speech
impediment?
• 2. Chanyoung always leaves off the
final s when she reads. I’ve told her a
million times that plural words end
with an s. Why is she refusing to read
the words correctly?
ELL Student Language Challenges
• 3. Rosa always switches words around in the
sentence, saying and writing things like “car red”
instead of “red car.” Is she dyslexic?
• 4. Suling always mixes up the gender-specific
pronouns, calling girls he or him and boys she or
her. I keep correcting her, but she just doesn’t get
it. And if she calls me Mrs. Wright one more time
I’m going to scream! Can’t she tell the difference
between boys and girls? Should I refer her to
special education?
ELL Student Language Challenges
• 5. Reading time was over and students were supposed to put
their books away and start working on their math worksheets.
But Thanawan just kept right on reading. I said to her, “Why
are you still reading instead of doing your math?” She smiled
and said, “Oh, because I not finish yet,” and she just kept on
reading. Why did she disobey me so rudely?
• 6. Our school puts most of the ELLs in a bilingual program.
Everyone knows young children learn new languages quickly.
So shouldn’t the students be placed in an English-only
classroom before it’s too late for them to learn English?
ELL Student Language Challenges
• 7. My principal just bought us a software program that drills
the ELL students in English. It’s really neat. If they get 30
drills in a row right they get rewarded with a little animation
where a bunny pops out of the tree and does a little dance.
The box the software came in says the students will be
speaking English in 3 or 4 weeks. Does this mean our ELLs
will be ready for the poetry analysis unit we’re starting next
month?
• 8. Roberto keeps saying, “I have 6 years old” when people ask
him how old he is. We’ve done grammar worksheets and drills
on am. And I keep correcting him. Why isn’t he learning it? Is
he a slow learner?
ELL Student Language Challenges
• 9. During student oral presentations on sea mammals,
William, one of my African American students, begins: “I
gonna aks you a question. Why whales have blow holes?
Whales gotta have blowholes because dey be breathin’
oxygen just like all da udder mammals. …” I just don’t
understand why William speaks such poor English.
• 10. RoDay quickly finished her math and spelling worksheets.
And she seemed to do just fine reading along with the other
students as we did a choral reading of a story from our
reading basal. But unlike the other students, she has hardly
done any work writing an alternative ending to the story. Why
is she refusing to do what should be a fun and creative
assignment?
What is Language?
• David Crystal’s (2001) Definition of
Language
– “The systematic, conventional use of
sounds, signs, or written symbols in a
human society for communication and
self-expression”
• Ability to use language separate
humans from other animals
Why Teachers Need to Know
About Language
• Filmore & Snow (2000) identify 5 functions
teachers perform that require knowledge of
language
–
–
–
–
–
Teacher
Teacher
Teacher
Teacher
Teacher
as
as
as
as
as
communicator
educator
evaluator
an educated human being
an agent of socialization
• All classrooms are language learning
environments
• Language is at the heart of teaching and learning
• Teachers need to “think linguistically”
What Teachers Need to Know
About Language
• Subsystems of Language
– Phonology
– Morphology
– Syntax
– Semantics
– Pragmatics
• Vocabulary (Lexicon)
• Spelling
• Language Variation
Phonology
• The study of the sound systems of a language
• Phoneme
– Smallest units of sound in a language
– Change in phoneme causes a change in meaning
• Ex: bit/bet
• Addresses the syllable structure and sequence of
sounds in a word
• Knowledge of phonology helps teachers
– Understand issues of pronunciation, accents, and
regional varieties
– Differences in the phonology of a student’s first
language (L1) and English that may lead to difficulties
Morphology
•
•
The study of the structure of words
Morpheme
– The smallest units that carry meaning or have a grammatical function
• Ex: Books  books (free morpheme) +-s (bound morpheme)
•
Inflectional changes
–
ex: fast/faster/fastest
•
Derivational changes (words derived from other words)
•
Creation of new vocabulary words
•
Knowledge of morphology helps teachers
– Ex: teach/teacher
– Ex: compounding – sun + roof = sunroof
– Explain prefixes, suffixes, infixes, verb tense changes, plurals, compound
words, possessives, comparatives, superlatives, contractions
– Teach word study lessons such as how to use morphemes to create
(derive) new words from known words
– Understand challenges caused by differences in morphology rules in
students L1
Syntax
• The study of the rules governing the way words
are combined to form sentences and the rules
governing the arrangement of sentences in
sequences
– Grammar
• Syntax is about the relationship between words,
and conveying intended meanings
– Who did what to whom, when, where, and how.
• Knowledge of syntax helps teachers
– Model and explain word order and other grammatical
rules to ensure students communicate effectively
– Understand challenges caused by differences in
students’ L1 syntax
Semantics
• The study of the meaning of words, phrases, and
sentences
• Individual words have semantic features that indicate
various properties or meanings inherent in the word
– Ex: Woman  animate, human, female, adult
• The relationships between words
• Knowledge of semantics helps teachers
– Explain synonyms, antonyms, homophones, homonyms,
etc.
– Develop vocabulary and word study lessons on
semantically related words
– Explain cognates and false cognates
– Understand challenges caused by differences in semantics
in students’ L1
Pragmatics
• The study of language in use
• The study of “invisible” meaning
– How we recognize what is meant even when it isn’t
actually said
• Knowledge of pragmatics helps teachers
– Guide students how to produce and to recognize and
respond appropriately to direct and indirect speech acts
• Requests, commands, statements, questions
– Explain to student appropriate ways to
• start, maintain, take turns in, and end conversations
• Express opinions, agree, disagree
• Negotiate social status, save face, make excuses
– Identify misunderstandings that may arise due to
pragmatic differences in students’ L1
Vocabulary (Lexicon)
• The vocabulary of a language is its lexicon
• Finegan (2004) notes to use a word from a lexicon, a
speaker needs four kinds of information:
– Its sounds and their sequencing (phonology)
– Its meanings (semantics)
– Its category (e.g., noun or verb) and how to use it in a sentence
(syntax)
– How related words such as the plural (for nouns) and past tense
(for verbs) are formed (morphology)
• Children from English-speaking homes pick up about 13
new words a day, and know about 80,000 words by the
time they are 17
• Teachers can help ELLs develop vocabulary in a similar
manner by creating language rich classrooms which
provide opportunities for natural vocabulary acquisition
Spelling
• The English spelling system can be
very confusing
• Our modern American spelling system
is not based simply on spelling words
the way they sound.
• Words may be spelled similarly
because they are related in meaning
rather than sound
• Ex: know/acknowledge
• Words borrowed from other languages
may be spelled to reflect their origin
Language Variation
• Standard English
– The variety spoken by members of the dominant society
– The variety taught and assessed in school
• Regional and Non-Standard Varieties of English
– Some differences in phonology, morphology, syntax,
semantics, pragmatics, and/or vocabulary
• Teachers need to understand, and help students
understand, that non-standard varieties are not
“bad English”
• Are equally rule-governed and legitimate
• Teachers need to learn pedagogically sound and
culturally sensitive methods for helping students
learn Standard English without delegitimizing the
variety of their homes and communities
What Does it Mean to
“Know” a Language
Old view – mastering a set of discrete skills in
listening, speaking, reading, and writing
– But language proficiency much greater than a sum of its
parts
Common view – When you reach the level of a
native speaker
– But what is a “native speaker”?
Different native speakers have different ranges of linguistic
ability
“Conservational” vs. “Academic Language Proficiency”
A dichotomized view that conversational fluency can be
developed in a couple of years but that academic language
proficiency takes five years or longer
Critics charge that this is a false dichotomy
Critics note the construct of “academic language” is too
simplistic to be generalized to the wide variety of language
demands across tasks in different content areas
What Does it Mean to
“Know” a Language
• TESOL Standards
– Attempt to delineate what “academic language”
proficiency means for ELLs
• Being able to communicate for social, intercultural, and
instructional purposes within the school setting
• Being able to communicate information, ideas, and concepts
necessary for academic success in language arts,
mathematics, science, and social studies
– Represent a more current view of language
• Delineates the different kinds of language demands
associated with the different academic content areas
–
–
–
–
Language Arts
Mathematics
Science
Social Studies
TESOL’s English Language Proficiency
(ELP) Standards
Standard 1: English language learners communicate for social,
intercultural, and instructional purposes within the school
setting.
Standard 2: English language learners communicate information,
ideas, and concepts necessary for academic success in the
area of language arts.
Standard 3: English language learners communicate information,
ideas, and concepts necessary for academic success in the
area of mathematics.
Standard 4: English language learners communicate information,
ideas, and concepts necessary for academic success in the
area of science.
Standard 5: English language learners communicate information,
ideas, and concepts necessary for academic success in the
area of social studies.
What does it mean to know a language?
Communicative Competence
• Knowing a language means being able to use it to
communicate effectively and appropriately with other
speakers of the language
Grammatical competence.
• The ability to recognize the lexical, morphological, syntactic, and
phonological features of a language and use them to interpret and form
words and sentences.
Discourse competence.
• The ability to connect a series of utterances, written words, or phrases to
form a meaningful whole.
Sociolinguistic competence.
• The ability to understand the social context in which language is used,
including the roles of the participants.
Strategic competence.
• The ability to use coping strategies in unfamiliar contexts when imperfect
knowledge of rules (or factors that limit their application), may lead to a
breakdown in communication.
What does it mean to know a language?
Register, Genre, and Discourse
•
Register
•
Genre
•
Discourse
– Variations in language, including the choice of words and grammar, that
reflect the social setting or context in which it is used
– In M.A.K. Halliday’s (1994) theory Systemic Functional Linguistics, refers
to goal-directed activities, such as the creation of a particular kind of
text, that functions to achieve a particular cultural purpose
– James Paul Gee (1996)
• discourse (small d) – language used in a particular context to enact
activities and identities
• Discourse (big D) - different ways in which we humans integrate language
with non-language “stuff,” such as different ways of thinking, acting,
interacting, valuing, feeling, believing, and using symbols, tools, and
objects in the right places and at the right times so as to enact and
recognize different identities and activities
•
Schools need to help ELLs learn the registers and Discourses
needed for academic and social success
What does it mean to know a language?
Second Language Instructional Competence
• Jeff MacSwan and Kellie Rolstad (2003) introduced the
concept of Second Language Instructional Competence
(SLIC)
– An alternative to the problematic construct of “academic
language proficiency”
• SLIC refers to the stage of second language (L2)
development at which the learner is able to understand
instruction and perform grade-level school activities in the
L2 alone, in the local educational context.
• Teachers can focus on a specific academic task and ask
themselves:
– What is the amount and type of linguistic proficiency that is
required for that student to engage the subject matter at hand?
– What level of oral and written language is required for students
to understand the language of instruction sufficiently well at that
moment, in that context, to participate in that lesson and learn
from it?
Theories of Second Language
Acquisition (SLA)
Behaviorism
– Skinner
– Habit formation (stimulus and response; positive reinforcement)
Innatist perspective
– Chomsky
Universal Grammar; Language Acquisition Device
– Krashen’s Hypotheses
Cognitive/Developmental Perspective (Psychological Theories)
– Interaction
– Input processing
Sociocultural Perspective
– Vygotsky
– Zone of Proximal Development (ZDP)
Innatist Theories of Second Language
Acquisition
Stephen Krashen (1982) proposed 5
interrelated hypotheses:
– The
– The
– The
– The
– The
Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis
Natural Order Hypothesis
Monitor Hypothesis
Input Hypothesis
Affective Filter Hypothesis
Theories of L2 Acquisition
Krashen
The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis
– Language Acquisition
Subconscious process (not aware it is
happening)
Once we acquire something, not aware we
possess new knowledge
Subconsciously stored in our brains
– Language Learning
What we did in school
Conscious process – we know we are learning
Rules, grammar
Because of the complexity of language,
the vast majority is acquired, rather than
Theories of L2 Acquisition
Krashen
Natural Order Hypothesis
– We acquire the parts of language in a predictable
order
– Order for L1 and L2 is similar, but not identical
– Some grammatical items tend to come earlier
and others tend to come later
example: third person singular –s (“Bob looks at his
watch) comes late
– Natural order appears to be immune to
deliberate teaching
Cannot change natural order through drills,
explanations, exercises
Won’t be acquired until its time has come
Theories of L2 Acquisition
Krashen
The Monitor Hypothesis
– Language use mostly depends on
acquired linguistic competence
– Conscious learning has one function only
– as a “Monitor” or editor
– After producing some language (when
speaking or writing), our monitor can kick
in to correct it if necessary
Like a little language teacher in our heads
reminding us of the rules
Theories of L2 Acquisition
Krashen
Input (Comprehension) Hypothesis
– Answers the most important question – How does
language acquisition occur?
– We acquire language in one way – when we
understand messages or obtain comprehensible
input
• We acquire language when we understand what we hear or what
we read, when we understand the message
– i+1
• i = a student’s current level of proficiency
• +1 = input that is just slightly above that level
• A student can move from i to i +1 by understanding input
containing i + 1.
• Do with the help of previously acquired linguistic
competence and context
Theories of L2 Acquisition
Krashen
Affective Filter Hypothesis
– Affective variables do not impact language
acquisition directly, but may prevent
comprehensible input.
– Examples, anxiety, low self-esteem, see self as
outsider of language group, shyness, etc.
– If affective filter is high, it blocks
comprehensible input
– If affective filter is low, it allows more
comprehensible input in.
Teachers need to create a supportive classroom
environment to lower the affective filter and thus allow
more i+1
Theories of L2 Acquisition
Krashen
Critiques of Krashen’s theories
– Oversimplification of complex processes
in second language acquisition (SLA)
– Can’t be proven
– Can’t operationalize things like i or +1 or
specify the exact sequence in the natural
order
– De-emphasizes language output
(speaking, writing) and the importance of
interaction
– Some misinterpret Krashen’s theories as
opposing all direct teaching
• Nonetheless, Krashen’s theories have
The Cognitive/Development Perspective
(Psychological Theories)
Interaction Hypothesis (Long)
Interaction is essential for SLA to occur
Input and interactions can be modified to maximize
comprehension
Comprehensible Output (Swain)
Speaking forces learners to confront the limits of their language
ability and push them to find better ways to get their message
across
Noticing Hypothesis (Schmidt)
Nothing is learned unless students’ notice it in the input
Processability Theory (Pienemann)
– Sequence in which learners acquire certain language features
depends on how easy they are to process
The Cognitive/Development Perspective
(Psychological Theories)
Input Processing Model (VanPatten)
– “Language acquisition happens in only one way
and all learners must undergo it. Learners must
have exposure to communicative input and they
must process it; the brain must organize data.
Learners must acquire output procedures, and
they need to interact with other speakers. There
is no way around these fundamental aspects of
acquisition; they are the basics.”
Sociocultural Theories
Vygotsky
– Learning is a social activity
– Knowledge is constructed through interaction and collaboration
with others
– Zone of proximal development (ZPD)
a domain or metaphoric space where children can reach a higher
level of knowledge and performance with the support of an adult or
other more knowledgeable person
– Scaffolding
The assistance given in the ZPD
Language socialization
Language learning is a process in which students are socialized into
the knowledge and practices of the target speech community
Language ecology
Emphasis on studying language as within it sociocultural
contexts
Transfer from L1 to L2
• Positive transfer
– Students are able to take much of the content-area knowledge
and literacy skills they gained in their first language (L1) and
transfer it to their second language (L2).
– Students with L1 literacy skills will likely make rapid progress in
developing English literacy skills
– Students who have substantial content-area knowledge in their
L1 do not need to re-learn the concepts in English
• They simply need the language skills to demonstrate what they
already know and can do
• Negative transfer
– Ex: applying L1 syntax rules to English
• More research needed to understand what does and does
not transfer
• Teachers can still be assured that students’ L1 literacy and
content knowledge skills are great strengths to build upon
Second Language Teaching Methods
and Approaches
Grammar-Translation Method (1840s)
Analysis and memorization of grammar rules
Translation of sentences between the two languages
Opposition to this outdated and ineffective method
inspired new methods
Audiolingual method (1930s)
Influenced by behaviorism
Memorization of dialogues and grammar drills
The Natural Approach (late 1970s/1980s)
Application of Krashen’s theories to the language
learning classroom
Emphasis on providing comprehensible input in an
enjoyable classroom context so students can naturally
acquire the language
Second Language Teaching Methods
and Approaches
Communicative Language Teaching
(1980s)
Current favored approach in the field
Based on communicative competence
Learn the language to be able to actually
communicate with other speakers
Classroom activities focus on authentic
and meaningful communication
Includes some focus on form (grammar)
which is necessary to comprehend and
produce comprehensible output
There are a wide range of communicative
Second Language Teaching Methods
and Approaches
Content-based instruction is a type of
communicative language teaching
– A selected content area becomes a meaningful
context for authentic communication as learners
collaborate to complete carefully designed
academic tasks
– ESL teachers used math, social studies, or
science as vehicles for language
instruction
• But ESL teachers were not experts in these
area
• Focus was more on learning the language
Second Language Teaching Methods
and Approaches
• Sheltered Instruction
– Also called specially designed academic
instruction in English (SDAIE)
– Content-area teachers learn to shelter
(specially design) their instruction to
make it comprehensible for ELLs while
supporting their English language
development
– Popular models
• Cognitive Academic Language Learning
Approach (CALLA)
Critical Pedagogy
• Developed by Paulo Freire in the 1960s
• Focus on liberating oppressed students through
transformative education
• Many teachers recognize the importance of helping ELLs
understand and confront unequal power relations in order
to improve their lives and society as they learn English and
academic content.
• Rejects the “banking” model of education where teachers
simply make deposits of essential knowledge and skills
into the heads of students
• Involves problem posing, reflective thinking, knowledge
gathering, and collaborative decision making
• Help students find and express their voice
• Central to levels 3 (transformative) and 4 (social action) of
Banks’ levels of multicultural education
– (see Chapter 1)
Beyond Approaches and Methods
• No single method or approach is applicable to or
appropriate for every classroom
• Teachers can draw on the variety of methods and
approaches and develop their own personal
approach informed by observation,
experimentation, and refection on the following
guiding questions:
1. What are the students’ strengths and needs?
2. What are the instructional goals?
3. What is likely to be challenging about these goals for
these students?
4. What strategies can help address these challenges?
5. How will you know whether these strategies are
effective?
Conclusion
• Knowledge of language is relevant to the many
roles teachers play as communicators, educators,
evaluators, educated human beings, and agents
of socialization
• When teachers know their students well, they can
provide the type of learning environment that
builds on their students’ strengths and
addresses their unique needs. They can provide
appropriate instruction, activities, and
opportunities for meaningful interaction to help
their students continue to make progress in
developing proficiency in English
Activitiy
(Activity sheet available on Companion Website)
• Work with a partner or in a group of
three students
• Read, discuss and complete the
matching activity sheet
– Second language acquisition perspectives
– Linguistic subsystems
– Approaches and methods
• Check and share your answers with
the whole group