Communication media research
 Among the research can be conducted on mass
media include:
* Research in the print media
* Research in the electronic media
* Research in media effects
* Research in information and
communication technology (ICT) and
cyber communication
Research in the print media
 For newspapers and magazines
A) READERSHIP RESEARCH: to know who reads
the media in terms of their profile and likeness of the
media, specifically there are five types of studies:
1) Reader profile – provide a demographic summary of
the readers of a particular publication. Recently
psychographic studies and lifestyle segmentation
research are conducted to more about readers
2) Item-selection studies – to determine who reads
specific parts of the publication
3) Reader nonreader studies – to find out who reads
the newspapers and who does not read and their
reasons for reading or not reading a particular
newspapers
4) Uses and gratification studies – to study all media
content. For newspapers it is used to determine
the motives that lead to newspaper reading and
the personal and psychological rewards that result
from it
5) Editor-reader comparisons – to see whether there is
any correspondence between the two groups
6) Magazine readership research – similar to research
conducted for newspapers, but differ in terms of
particulars such as this research asks readers to
rate each article on a four point scale of ‘read all,’
‘read most,’ ‘read some’ and ‘didn’t read’
B) CIRCULATION RESEARCH: to measure
circulation in terms of the overall characteristics of a
particular market, or the circulation pattern of a
magazine among certain demographic groups or in
specific geographic areas. Also, to identify other
market level or market structure variables that have an
impact on circulation
C) NEWSPAPER MANAGEMENT RESEARCH:
conducted to evaluate business expansion, job
requirement, technology advancement and to fulfill
the new competitive environment
D) TYPOGRAPHY AND MAKEUP RESEARCH:
measures the effects of news design elements with
regards to typeface and page makeup – on readership,
reader preference, and comprehension
E) READABILITY RESEARCH: to measure the extent
which readers understand the piece, are able to read it
at an optimal speed, and find it interesting
Research in the electronic media
 For television and radio mostly involving rating
research
- information about audience size
- important for advertisers in determining
advertising rates
- Nielsen Media Research is the main player in
rating research internationally
 Research that does not involve rating include:
- Market study
- Format study
- Program element importance
- Station image
- Personality (talent) studies
- Advertiser (account) analysis
- Account executive research
- Sales research
- Diversification analyses
Research in media effects
 Six major areas of media effect research:
- Antisocial and prosocial effects of media
contents
- Uses and gratifications
- Agenda setting by the media
- Cultivation of perceptions of social reality
- Advertising and the socialization of children
- Campaign assessment research
 Antisocial and prosocial effects of media
contents – the social impact of mass communication
towards society as a result of watching movies and
television. The study includes information gain,
attitude change and influence on behavior, especially
on children
 Uses and gratifications – takes the view of media
consumers as it examines how people use the media
and the gratifications they seek and receive from their
media behaviors. Researchers assumes that audience
members are aware of and can articulate their reasons
for consuming various media content
 Agenda setting by the media – it proposes that the
public agenda, the kinds of things people discuss,
think and worry about is powerfully shaped and
directed by what news media choose to publicize.
Agenda setting research examines the relationship
between media priorities and audience priorities
concerning the relative importance of news topics
 Cultivation of perceptions of social reality – the basic
assumption is that repeated exposures to consistent
media portrayals and themes will influence the public
perceptions of these items in the direction of the
media portrayals
 Advertising and the socialization of children – to
determine comprehensibility and persuasiveness of
the children that are exposed to commercials. Done to
develop theory concerning children and consumer
socialization, and guideline for public policy
 Campaign assessment research – to gauge the reach of
specific campaign message among targeted audience
and its impact in terms of knowledge gained, attitude
change and behavior modification
Research in ICT and cyber
communication
 Assessing the influence and impact of information
and communication technology (ICT) towards society:
- how the ICT has influence lifestyles?
- study and work environments
- social communications
- economic activities
- how it has effected the children, women and
health?
- getting and sharing information
- ethics among users etc.
Doing citation/quotation
• Refer to American Psychological Association (APA
style)
• The followings are guidelines in doing citation
and quotation in literature reviews according to
scientific method
1. State the name of author with year in the citation.
Names cited must be listed in the reference list
- State the family name without initial of the first
and middle name
- If there are three authors, their names should
be stated. If more than three, write the name of
first author followed by et. al.
- For direct quotation as a whole, the name of the
author can be stated at the beginning or at the
end of quotation
Example:
Musa Abu Hassan (2008) mendapati media sosial
amat mempunyai pengaruh yang kuat dalam kalangan
remaja masa kini.
or
Media sosial amat mempunyai pengaruh yang kuat
dalam kalangan remaja masa kini (Musa Abu Hassan,
2008).
 For direct quotation of less than 40 words, it can
be written in the sentence.
Example::
Musa Abu Hassan (2002) menyatakan “keinginan
manusia untuk berkomunikasi dengan cepat,
cekap dan berkesan telah menjana teknologi baru
yang membolehkan mereka melakukan pelbagai
perkara termasuk yang tidak sepatutnya
dilakukan.” (p. 10)
 For quotation of more than 40 words, it has to written in
block and indented.
Teknologi digital membolehkan kesepaduan media untuk
menyampaikan maklumat. Ini diterangkan oleh Musa
Abu Hassan (2002) seperti berikut:
“Antara lain teknologi digital mampu untuk
‘menukarkan’ maklumat dalam bentuk gambar, suara
atau teks dalam gabungan kod tutup dan kod buka.
Teknologi digital menggunakan urutan angka untuk
melambangkan maklumat, manakala sistem analog
pula merupakan sistem yang menggunakan
gelombang mikroelektronik yang ditukarkan menjadi
isyarat elektrik.” (p.19)
2. If making citation from a material that quote another
source, then the reference should be made to the one
who made the citation.
Example:
In the writing of Ahmad, it stated that Ismadi (2001)
had found the most effective medium to disseminate
information was television. In this case you did not
refer to Ismadi, but you refer to Ahmad. Thus, your
reference is Ahmad, not Ismadi.
- The citation then becomes Ahmad (cited form
Ismadi, 2001) …..
3. Arranging information that are referred
- When an idea is cited form several sources that
are similar, then the authors names are written,
without repeating the same idea. Example:
Nonverbal messages are more powerful than the
verbal messages at all times (Musa, 2007, Zahid,
2008, and Roberts, 2010)
- If the idea conflicts one another, then write their
names and their ideas respectively.
Writing references
 Book
Mitcheel, T. R., & Larson, J. R. (1987). People in
organization (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill
 Book chapter
Bjork, R. A. (1998). Retrievel inhibition as an
adaptive mechanism in human memory. In H. L.
Larson & T. R. Mitcheel (Eds.), Varieties of
memory and consciousness (pp. 105-175).
Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum
 Journal article
Klimoski, R., Palmer, S., Isomand, T. P, & White, L.
A. (1993). Role of early supervisor experience in
supervisor performance. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 78, 443-449
 Presented paper
Ezhar Tamam. (1999, May). An exploratory study of
complimenting behaviour among Malays. Paper
presented the International Conference on
MICOLLAC organized by Faculty of Modern
Languages and Communication, Universiti Putra
Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor
 Newspaper
Scheartz, J. (1993, September 30). Obesity affect
economic, social status. The Washington Post, p.7
 Newspaper article without author
New drug appears to sharply cut risk of death from
heart failure. (1995, July 15). The Washington Post,
p.15
 Magazine
Zamri Ahmad. (1999). Mengatasi kegugupan
komunikasi. Majalah Pengembangan, 3, 65-71.
 Report of organization
Jabatan Penerangan Malaysia. (1995). Laporan
Tahunan 1994. Kuala Lumpur: Jabatan
Penerangan
 Online journal
Fuller, L.K. (1998). The role of dominant ethnicity in
racism: Reportage on Chinese rule in multi-racial
Singapore. The adge: The E-Jurnal of Intercultural
Relations, 1, 3. Retrieved June 30, 1998. Available:
http://www.hart-li.com/biz/theedge/domrac.htm
 CD-ROM abstract
Brower, D. L. (1995). The tip-of-the-tongue
phenomena (CD-ROM). Memory & Cognition, 20,
200-215. Abstract from: ProQuest File:
Dissertation Abstracts Item:9315947
 Online source(without author and article title)
http://www.apa.org/journals/webref.html
Writing research proposal
 Should include the followings:
- title of research
- some scenario of the research background
- the importance of research
- statement of problems, research questions,
general and specific objectives or hypotheses
- key concepts and variables
- some pertinent literatures and related theory
- methodology or research design – data
collection method(s)
- population and sampling procedures
- data processing and analysis
- research schedule and key milestone
- research personnel and research costs
- expected outcomes and their importance
 Work backwards for time schedule, begins with
expected completion time
 Identify key milestones that are achievable
 Indicate key team meetings and workshops
 The research team members must be given specific
tasks or justify their presence
 List the roles of research assistant(s)
 Research budget should include:
- equipment, software, upgrading, stationeries
- salary, traveling and lodging
- support services for data collection and
processing, secretarial helps
- communication – telephones, faxs, stamps
- overheads, per diem, honorarium, tokens
- contingency (10 – 15 % of total)