Priscilla Jih
Monica Fitzgerald
L&CS 122- Final Paper
May 21, 2013
Water-The Necessity of Life
How can earth be facing a water crisis when 72 percent of the earth’s surface is water?
This is one common question one may have regarding the water crisis. This question is
addressed in Antoine Frerot’s, Water: Towards a Culture of Responsibility. She explains, “97%
of the water present on Earth is salt water, and the remaining 2.5% is fresh water. But can this
2.5% be used by humanity? No, because 70% of fresh water is frozen in the poles and in
mountain glaciers, and the remaining 30% is almost all ground water”. This means that
theoretically only 0.3% of earth’s freshwater is available for all of humans (Frerot 20). Through
California’s water history, individuals gain insight into the natural progression of water from a
free resource to a commodity that only the privileged could afford. Today, around 780 million
people in the world lack access to clean water (water.org). Thus, progress towards equal access
to water can be achieved with proper education about the history and status of water today,
innovation from individuals around the world who are inspired to think of new and creative
methods that will help the water crisis, and motivation within humanity to make the change and
take the necessary steps towards water conservation and water equality.
In Anne-Christin Sjolander Holland’s, The Water Business, Holland shares some
interesting facts about humanity’s relationship with water. She states, “Human beings are 90 per
cent water. If only 5 per cent of our fluid balance is lost, we feel uncomfortable; 10 per cent
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reduces mobility; a 20 per cent loss can mean death” (Holland 112). This fact reiterates the idea
that all humans need water to survive. However, the world is driven by the economy and how
much an individual or a group can earn for oneself. This mindset leads to the idea of the
“tragedy of the commons”; people will always look out for their selfish interests, before looking
out for others. Therefore, because of the desire for money and the fact that water is a necessity
for life on earth, water becomes an instant target for conflict and economic gain. People try to
get the most they can, which has in turn caused the great privatization and globalization of water.
From very early on, individuals gathered the idea that water is very valuable and can lead
to wealth. By looking at California’s water history, individuals gain more insight into the natural
development of humanity’s relationship with water. In a period before massive dams and
aqueducts, “California’s rivers flowed uninterrupted into valleys, marshes, bays, and the ocean”
(Hundley 5). Because water was seen as a great benefit to the changing climates of California,
natives of California desired to live in areas closest to the water for better vegetation (Hundley
16). In the fall 1999 issue of “Department of Water Resources News”, Joyce Tokita created a
comprehensive timeline of California’s water history. Although California is predominately
known for the discovery of gold, water also played a big impact into the development of
California. In Tokita’s introduction to the issue, she shares, “whether they [individuals searching
for gold] found the precious metal or not, many newcomers chose to stay in California. Some of
these settlers turned to farming the land and discovered the state’s enduring source of its wealthits water” (Tokita 2). People were willing to stay in California simply because of the land’s
access to water. Even though they may not have found gold, they were willing to invest their
future in water, because they knew the great value of water.
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Nevertheless, water also became a major issue of conflict in California. Because of the
changing climates in California, different areas of the state often experienced periods of low
rainfall and drought. Thus, by 1874 San Francisco obtained their personal public system of
water (Hundley 172-173). This desire to establish a municipal water system became an area of
debate. People’s selfish desire to own water sources led to the destruction of Hetch Hetchy
Valley and Mono Lake. During the development of California, individuals did not have an
awareness of the importance of preserving nature. Therefore, they solely based their decisions
on economic means. In Norris Hundley Jr’s, The Great Thirst, the destruction of the Mono
Basin is documented. The Mono drainage basin was one of Los Angeles’s watering holes.
Moreover, “In 1970…. Los Angeles completed a second aqueduct through the Owens Valley and
into the Mono Basin” (Hundley 336). However, this decision was based upon the fact that the
city would be paying less for this water compared to the previous 2 sources they had been using.
According to Hundley’s records, “Los Angeles did not then need the additional water” (336).
Environmentalists such as John Muir understood the importance of preserving water for both the
earth and the future. However, because of humanity’s focus on present issues and desires,
environmentalists eventually lost many of the battles against environmental conservation.
In addition, the way humans deal with water also plays a great impact in the environment.
As of 2004, “About 1,400 dams in California convert flowing rivers and streams into reservoirs;
in the Sierra Nevada, 600 river-miles have been flooded” (Carle 135). Because of the changes in
waterscapes, many species and lands have suffered because of humanities’ desire to gain more
water for themselves. David Carle touched upon the connection between California’s water
development and the increase in endangered species. He states, “It is no coincidence that
California is also the state wit the most endangered and threatened species” (Carle 135).
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Additionally, in his book, Introduction to Water in California, Carle weighs both the pros and
cons of water development. On one hand he understands that changing the waterscape can
benefit humanity. For example, “Dams store water supply, generate electricity, and help control
flooding” (Carle 135). On the other hand, he also addresses the negative consequences of
building such dams, “They also destroy many of the natural processes of rivers and river
ecosystems…. Dams trap sediments…. Without sediment deposits and periodic high flows,
riparian vegetation is lost” (Carle 135). Along with these examples, Mono Lake is another
illustration of how altering the natural flow leads to negative consequences. Hundley reveals,
“Within forty years of Los Angeles’s first diversions, the two aqueducts had caused the lake
surface to fall by forty-five feet, the volume of water to decrease by half, and the salinity nearly
to double (to two- and- a-half times that of the ocean)” (Hundley 338). Although humanity has
benefitted from the changes of waterscape, humans must also remember that their decisions
greatly impact all aspects of the environment.
Moreover, despite the droughts and water problems that have arisen in California, the
United States has been privileged enough to have more than enough water, unlike other
countries. Even in times of drought, Californians, and U.S citizens in general have yet to
experience the water crisis that many developing countries have experienced. Here are some
facts about the current water crisis taken from water.org: “More than 3.4 million people die each
year from water, sanitation, and hygiene-related causes. Nearly all deaths, 99 percent, occur in
the developing world…. Over 2.5 times more people lack water than live in the United States….
An American taking a five-minute shower uses more water than the average person in a
developing country slum uses for an entire day” (water.org). These are just a few facts that
exemplify the vast difference in water quality and accessibility between the U.S and other
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developing countries. In Vandana Shiva’s, Water Wars, Shiva addresses these water
inequalities. She defines water crisis as, “A country is said to be facing a serious water crisis
when available water is lower than 1,000 cubic meters per person per year” (Shiva 1). She then
goes on to state projections of future water crises based on data from 1990’s. In 1998, “28
countries experienced water stress or scarcity. This number is expected to rise to 56 by 2025.
Between 1990 and 2025 the number of people living in countries without adequate water is
projected to rise from 131 million to 817 million” (Shiva 1). Even though the United States has
not personally felt the harmful effects of lack of water and sanitation, these facts should compel
the privileged to work together to preserve and conserve this precious necessity of life so that all
can have access to clean water.
Although humans come from all walks of life, the need for water is universal; thus access
to clean, safe water should be equal. In Shiva’s work, she expresses the idea of water rights
being human rights. She believes that if water is a natural right, they are then “usufructuary
rights” which the Oxford dictionary defines as, “the right to enjoy the use and advantages of
another's property short of the destruction or waste of its substance”. Though this mentality may
seem ideal, these “usufructuary rights” are very difficult to attain in today’s world. Nevertheless,
there are many ways to move towards more water conservation and water equality.
One fundamental step towards achieving water conservation and equality is education. In
the Hetch Hetchy situation, people were more focused on now, rather than the future. In
Hundley’s The Great Thirst he describes the struggles Muir had in trying to convince San
Franciscans to preserve water. He states, “Muir and his supporters found it difficult to challenge
San Francisco’s claims about the need for additional water or to persuade a public not as
committed to preservation as later generations would become” (Hundley 181). Because
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individuals did not see the purpose or value of preservation, Hetch Hetchy valley was “dammed
and made into a reservoir to help supply San Francisco with water and lights” (Muir 693).
Although the damming of Hetch Hetchy was for the benefit of San Franciscans, the decision also
added to the overall over-consumption of Americans. In the United States, “The average
individual daily consumption of water is 159 gallons, while more than half the world’s
population lives on 25 gallons” (mindfully.org). Because the United States uses so much more
water than other countries, U.S water habits greatly influences the world’s access to water. If
U.S citizens became more informed of their excessive use of water and the inequalities of access
to water, citizens may feel more compelled to support water conservation and preservation.
In addition to knowing the importance of conserving water, Americans also need to know
the facts about their own water use. Citizens need to understand that water is used in many
different ways. Ann-Christin Sjolander Holland shares, “In the USA, 65 per cent of the water
consumed is used by industry and in the generation of electrical power; 27 per cent is used by
agriculture; and only 8 per cent is used as drinking water, in households and for hygiene
(Holland 112). While many may think that cutting down household us of water is the most
individuals can do to conserve water, only a small percentage is used for that reason. Therefore,
it is important for Americans need to know where their water is going, in order to know where
they need to cut back. Nevertheless, conserving water in their house is still crucial and will help
overall water conservation. But individuals must also realize that there are other areas, such as
energy, where one can also conserve even more water.
A second step towards water conservation and equal access to water involves innovation.
There are many different aspects of innovation. One way of being innovative is thinking of
creative means of attracting audiences’ attention in regards to water conservation and water
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equality. Today, media is a prominent way of conveying important messages. Thus, movies,
websites, social media, etc. are all valuable assets for spreading the message of water
conservation and equality of water. Often times, people have a perception that environmentalbased movies or documentaries are extremely boring or dull. However, the documentary Flow
presents important water issues in a very engaging and entertaining way. The movie effectively
emphasizes the water crises and calls audiences to action. Therefore, individuals with talents in
movie making, directing, writing, can all use their innovative, creative skills to get more people
informed, which will hopefully also get individuals more environmentally active.
An additional aspect of innovation is through new techniques for water cleaning.
Creating new ways of cleaning water is extremely beneficial for the accessibility of clean, usable
water for all. As stated earlier, many countries are not able to receive sanitized water.
According to water.org, “[The water and sanitation] crisis claims more lives through disease than
any war claims through guns”. Thus, thinking of ways to sanitize water is crucial for these
underdeveloped countries. Today, there are many different studies and ideas on easy, usable
water sanitation systems. However, a lot of work still needs to be done. In a recent study
published by The Official Journal of the International Society for Food and Environmental
Virology”, 3 researchers examined the effectiveness of a new technology that uses a UV light to
try to kill of viruses in the water. The study is titled, “Assessment of a Portable Handheld UV
Light Device for the Disinfection of Viruses and Bacteria in Water”. These researchers used
both US Environmental Protection Agency and the National Sanitation Foundation standards to
access the performance of this new technology. In order to test the effectiveness, an experiment
was designed where the UV device was placed into waters of different turbidity/murkiness. The
researchers found that, “The UV personal treatment device used in this study was capable of
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meeting the requirements of the USEPA, NSF, and WHO (for protective devices) in general case
test water, but filtration was required in order for it to pass the worst case water” (AbdElmaksoud, Naranjo, and Gerba). This result is very important because it reveals how progress
is happening, but more research is needed to perfect this device.
Another leading organization for technological advices of water cleaning is the
Technology Push Program. This is a program associated with the Global Water Organization.
On their website, globalwater.org, the organization shares their hopes and plans for water
sanitation. They understand that although many companies and organizations have helped in
building wells and other means of attaining water, most of these aids are unsustainable.
Therefore, Global Water wants to overcome that challenge. Providing developing countries with
sustainable ways of accessing clean, drinkable water is very important. In addition, creating
ways that are easy to use will make the process to attaining clean water even better. Thus,
“Global Water has the technical expertise and connections with local water-advocacy groups to
provide water supply equipment to developing countries” (Global Water). The Technology Push
Program has many ideas of sustainable ways of cleaning water. Many of these methods included
using solar energy to disinfect the water. Like the previous study mentioned, many of these
methods are still in the process of modification. Although technology is taking a big step
forward, there are still improvements that must be made in order for the water to be truly clean
and drinkable.
The final step towards water conservation and equal access to water is staying motivated
to make changes towards more environmental activism. Motivation is internal, each individual
must find an area of the water issue that they personally connect with and come up with a way
they will personally take action. There are both big and small ways an individual can help the
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water crisis. Nevertheless, whether big or small, every individual’s decisions regarding water
will have an impact. Although simple steps such as turning off the faucet when brushing one’s
teeth or signing a petition in support of equal access to water may seem minuscule, individual
actions can lead to collective change. Individuals must work together to motivate one another to
keep conserving water and being active in trying to end the inequalities surrounding water
privileges.
Nevertheless, extra help from the government is also a practical way to spark motivation
within individuals. Often times changing one’s lifestyle can be difficult if there seems to be no
personal benefit. Thus, the United States has been creating new ways to motivate individuals to
conserve. In April 2013, there was a National Mayor’s Challenge for Water Conservation. This
challenge encouraged counties to conserve water in hopes that “those who do so may have the
opportunity to drive home in a new Toyota Prius” (Babcock). The city of Campbell’s mayor,
Evan Low responded to this campaign stating, “ ‘Campbell residents can learn about easy ways
in which they can conserve in their daily activities…. It will not only help individuals and
families save on costs, but there is also a benefit to our environment and community’ ”
(Babcock). Moreover, beyond the potential prizes, competitions like these hope to instill water
knowledge and values that will continue beyond the competition. One important aspect of this
campaign was the fact that residents competing understood that “it’s not only about water.
Those who sign up can also pledge to power down to save electricity, use Energy Star
appliances…. Pick up their pets’ waste” (Babcock). This is an important issue to emphasize
because so much of the water crisis is interconnected. Although picking up one’s pet’s waste
may not seem to connect with water, picking up the waste will help decrease pollution, which
will also decrease water pollution, making the water a bit easier to clean. This can be greatly
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beneficial for those up and coming technologies regarding water sanitation. With less pollutants
in the water, scientists and inventors will be more likely to move forward with their water
cleaning technology, rather than having spend more time creating ways of cleaning even more
polluted water. This would also slow down the process of supplying developing countries with
these sanitation systems. In addition, saving energy will also save water-use because a lot of
water is used for electricity. Therefore, although competition may not seem like the best method
of motivation for long-term results, competition can be a starting block for motivating citizens to
conserve.
At first glance, the water crisis may seem like an impossible issue to solve. However, if
humans work together, success is attainable. Humanity must learn from their past mistakes and
do their best to conserve what little usable water is left. Moreover, nations, like the U.S, who are
privileged enough to have access to clean water must also understand that their water use not
only impacts the environment, but also fellow humans in developing countries. Individuals need
to be aware of the inequalities of water access and use their talents and their voice to make a
change. Whether that is creating movies and websites about the need for equal access to water,
developing new technologies in hopes of solving the water sanitation problems, or finding ways
to motivate one another to practice environmental activism, everyone is capable of making a
change.
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Works Cited
Abd-Elmaksoud, Sherif, Jamie Naranjo, and Charles Gerba. "Assessment of a Portable Handheld
UV Light Device for the Disinfection of Viruses and Bacteria in Water." Official Journal
of the International Society for Food and Environmental Virology. (2013): n. page. Print.
Babcock, Brian. "National mayors challenge asks residents to reduce water usage and cut
pollution." Silicon Valley MercuryNews [San Jose] 11 004 2013, n. pag. Web. 21 May.
2013. <http://www.mercurynews.com/ci_23008496/national-mayors-challenge-asksresidents-reduce-water-usage?IADID=Search-www.mercurynews.comwww.mercurynews.com&IADID=Search-www.mercurynews.comwww.mercurynews.com>.
Carle , David. Introduction to Water in California. London, England: The Regents of the
University of California, 2004. Print.
Ehrlich, Paul. "Consumption by the United States." Mindfully.org. Mindfully.org. Web. 8 May
2013. <http://www.mindfully.org/Sustainability/Americans-Consume-24percent.htm>.
Frerot, Antoine. Water Towards a Culture of Responsibility. Lebanon, NH: University of New
Hampshire Press, 2011. Print.
Grimshaw, David. "Nanotechnology for clean water: Facts and figures." SciDev.net. SciDev.net,
06 005 2009. Web. 8 May. 2013. <http://www.scidev.net/en/newtechnologies/nanotechnology-for-clean-water/features/nanotechnology-for-clean-waterfacts-and-figures.html>.
Hundley Jr., Norris. The Great Thirst. London, England: The Regents of the University of
California, 2001. Print.
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Millions Lack Safe Water. 2013. Infographic. water.orgWeb. 06 May 2013.
<http://water.org/water-crisis/water-facts/water/>.
Shiva, Vandana. Water Wars. Cambridge, MA: South End Press, 2002. Print.
Sjolander Holland, Ann-Christin. The Water Business. London and New York: Zed Books Ltd,
2005. Print.
"Technology Push Program." Global Water. Global Water, n.d. Web. 11 May 2013.
<http://globalwater.org/field-resources/technology-push-program/>.
Tokita, Joyce. "150 Years of California's Water History." Department of Water Resources News.
1993: 2. Print.
United States. Environmental Protection Agency. Water Sense Start Saving. N.W
Washington,DC: WaterSense, 2013. Print.
<http://www.epa.gov/watersense/our_water/start_saving.html