CHAPTER 38
ANGIOSPERM REPRODUCTION AND
BIOTECHNOLOGY
1
Male wasps transfer pollen to an
Mediterranean orchid
2
I. Concept 38.1: Unique Features of the
Angiosperm Life Cycle
A. Overview
•Diploid (2n) sporophytes produce spores by meiosis; these
grow into haploid (n) gametophytes
•Gametophytes produce haploid (n) gametes by mitosis;
fertilization of gametes produces a sporophyte
•In angiosperms, the sporophyte is the dominant generation,
the large plant that we see
•The gametophytes are reduced in size and depend on the
sporophyte for nutrients
•The angiosperm life cycle is characterized by “three Fs”:
flowers, double fertilization, and fruits
3
Angiosperm Life Cycle
4
B. Flower Structure and Function
1. Flowers are the reproductive shoots of the angiosperm
sporophyte; they attach to a part of the stem called the
receptacle
•The receptacle or base is a modified stem end which
holds the flower
2. Flowers consist of four floral organs: sepals, petals,
stamens, and carpels
3. Sepals are the green leaf-like floral parts which protect
the flower in the bud stage
•All the sepals form the calyx
4. Petals are the conspicuous colored flower parts
•All the petals together form the corolla
5
5. A stamen consists of a filament topped by an anther
with pollen sacs that produce pollen (male)
6. A carpel has a long style with a stigma on which pollen
may land (female)
7. At the base of the style is an ovary containing one or
more ovules which develop into seeds after fertilization
8. A single carpel or group of fused carpels is called a
pistil
9. Complete flowers contain all four floral organs
10.Incomplete flowers lack one or more floral organs, for
example stamens or carpels
11.Clusters of flowers are called inflorescences
6
7
Flower Structure
8
Lilies
9
C. Development of Male Gametophytes in Pollen Grains
(Microsporogenesis)
• Within pollen sacs of an anther, diploid microsporocytes
undergo meiosis to form 4 haploid microspores
Microspore nucleus undergoes mitosis to produce
a generative cell and a tube cell
Wall of the microspore thickens and becomes
sculptured into a species-specific pattern
The generative cell and tube cell are enclosed
in the thickened wall to form the pollen grain,
an immature male gametophyte
10
• Tube cell will form the pollen tube
• Generative cell forms 2 sperm nuclei (mature male
gametophyte)
11
12
D. Development of Female Gametophytes (Embryo Sacs)
(Megasporogenesis)
•Megasporocyte in ovule grows and goes through meiosis
to form 4 haploid megaspores
(only 1 usually survives)
Remaining megaspore grows and its nucleus
undergoes 3 mitotic divisions, forming
1 large cell with 8 haploid nuclei
Membranes partition this into a multicellular embryo sac
13
•Ovules form within ovary and contain the female
gametophyte or embryo sac
•At the end containing the egg is the micropyle (an
opening through the integuments surrounding the
embryo sac)
14
15
E. Pollination
• In angiosperms, pollination is the transfer of pollen from an
anther to a stigma
• Pollination can be by wind, water, bee, moth and butterfly,
fly, bird, bat, or water
• As pollen germinates, tube nucleus forms a pollen tube
down the style toward the embryo sac
• At the same time, generative nucleus divides by mitosis to
form 2 sperm nuclei (male gamete)
• Pollen tube penetrates micropyle
16
17
18
Pollen Tube
19
F. Double Fertilization
• After landing on a receptive stigma, a pollen grain produces
a pollen tube that extends between the cells of the style
toward the ovary
• Double fertilization results from the discharge of two sperm
from the pollen tube into the embryo sac
• One sperm fertilizes the egg, and the other combines with
the polar nuclei, giving rise to the triploid (3n) food-storing
endosperm
• After double fertilization, each ovule develops into a seed
• The ovary develops into a fruit enclosing the seed(s)
20
Double Fertilization
21
Sperm Nuclei Enter Micropyle
22
G. Seed Development, Form and Function
1. Endosperm Development
•Endosperm development usually precedes embryo
development
•In most monocots and some eudicots, endosperm stores
nutrients that can be used by the seedling
•In other eudicots, the food reserves of the endosperm are
exported to the cotyledons
23
2. Embryo Development
•The first mitotic division of the zygote is transverse,
splitting the fertilized egg into a basal cell and a
terminal cell
•Mitosis continues to occur, eventually producing
cotyledons and apical meristems
24
25
3. Structure of the Mature Seed
•The embryo and its food supply are enclosed by a hard,
protective seed coat
•The seed enters a state of dormancy (during the last
stages of maturation)
•In some eudicots the embryo consists of the embryonic
axis attached to two cotyledons (seed leaves)
•Below the cotyledons the embryonic axis is called the
hypocotyl and terminates in the radicle (embryonic root);
above the cotyledons it is called the epicotyl (shoot tip
with a pair of miniature leaves)
26
Eudicot Seed
27
28
•A monocot embryo has one cotyledon
•Grasses, such as maize and wheat, have a special
cotyledon called a scutellum which absorbs nutrients
from the endosperm during germination
•Two sheathes enclose the embryo of a grass seed: a
coleoptile covering the young shoot and a coleorhiza
covering the young root
29
Monocot Seed
30
4. Seed Dormancy
•Seed dormancy increases the chances that germination
will occur at a time and place most advantageous to the
seedling
•The breaking of seed dormancy often requires
environmental cues, such as temperature or lighting
changes
31
5. Seed Germination and Seedling Development
•Germination depends on imbibition, the uptake of water
due to low water potential of the dry seed
•The radicle (embryonic root) emerges first
•Next, the shoot tip breaks through the soil surface
•In many eudicots, a hook forms in the hypocotyl, and
growth pushes the hook above ground
•The hook straightens and pulls the cotyledons and
shoot tip up
•In maize and other grasses, which are monocots, the
coleoptile pushes up through the soil
32
Eudicot Germination
33
Monocot Germination
34
H. Fruit Form and Function
1. A fruit develops from the ovary
2. It protects the enclosed seeds and aids in seed dispersal
by wind or animals
3. A fruit may be classified as dry, if the ovary dries out at
maturity, or fleshy, if the ovary becomes thick, soft, and
sweet at maturity
4. Fruits are also classified by their development:
-Simple, a single or several fused carpels
-Aggregate, a single flower with multiple separate carpels
-Multiple, a group of flowers called an inflorescence
5. An accessory fruit contains other floral parts in addition to
ovaries
6. Fruit dispersal mechanisms include: water, wind, animals
35
36
37
38
39
II. Concept 38.2: Plants Reproduce
Sexually, Asexually, or Both
A. Asexual reproduction, or vegetative reproduction, produces
clones.
B. Mechanisms of Asexual Reproduction
1. Fragmentation is an example in which pieces of the parent
plant break off to form new individuals that are exact
genetic replicas of the parent.
2. Apomixis is the asexual production of seeds from a diploid
cell. (Ex: dandelions)
40
C. Agriculture uses several techniques of artificial
vegetative reproduction such as grafting, growing clones
from cuttings, and test-tube cloning
D. Asexual reproduction can be beneficial to a successful
plant in a stable environment
E. Sexual reproduction generates genetic variation that
makes evolutionary adaptation possible
F. While some flowers self-fertilize, other have methods to
prevent self-fertilization and maximize genetic variation.
•One of these is self-incompatibility, in which a plant
rejects its own pollen or that of a closely related plant,
thus insuring cross-pollination
41
42