Slavery and the African American
Experience in the American
Revolution
Crispus Attucks in the Mob at the
“Boston Massacre,” 1770
Phillis Wheatley, Boston Slave and
Published Poet
Slavery and Slave Revolt as a Cause of
the American Revolution
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Centrality of Slavery to British North America
Role of Slave Revolts
Growing Radical Abolition Movement
Somerset Case (1772) and Its Effects
British Imperial Economy and
Centrality of Slavery in the 18th
Century
Slave Trade Over Time
Slave Ship
1769 South Carolina Slave
Advertisement
Tacky’s Rebellion in Jamaica, 1760-61
British Response
Northern Urban Slavery, Trials in New
York, 1741 Slave Conspiracy
Pre-Revolutionary Slave Revolts in
British West Indies
– 1760-1, Tacky’s Revolt in Jamaica; also revolts in 1765 and
1766.
– Bermuda and Nevis: 1761
– Br. Honduras: 1765, 1768, 1773
– Grenada: 1765
– Montserrat, 1768
– St. Vincent, 1769-73
– Tobago, 1770, 1771, 1774
– St. Croix and St Thomas, 1770
– St. Kitts, 1778
– Use of British troops to put them down.
Pre-Revolutionary Slave Revolts in
North America
• 1720 South Carolina
• 1739: Stono, South Carolina
• 1712, 1741, New York City
• Virginia: 1767, New Jersey 1772,
• Eve of Revolution: 1774-75: North
Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia,
Maryland, New York,
• Use of Local Colonial Militia to put them
down
John Woolman (1720-1772)
Thomas Paine
1773 Petition by Slaves for Freedom to
Massachusetts Assembly (Felix’s
Petition)
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Province of the Massachusetts Bay To His Excellency Thomas Hutchinson, Esq; Governor; To
The Honorable His Majesty's Council, and To the Honorable House of Representatives in
General Court assembled at Boston, the 6th Day of January, 1773. The humble PETITION of
many Slaves, living in the Town of Boston, and other Towns in the Province is this, namely
That your Excellency and Honors, and the Honorable the Representatives would be pleased
to take their unhappy State and Condition under your wise and just Consideration.
We desire to bless God, who loves Mankind, who sent his Son to die for their Salvation, and
who is no respecter of Persons; that he hath lately put it into the Hearts of Multitudes on
both Sides of the Water, to bear our Burthens, some of whom are Men of great Note and
Influence; who have pleaded our Cause with Arguments which we hope will have their
weight with this Honorable Court.
We presume not to dictate to your Excellency and Honors, being willing to rest our Cause on
your Humanity and justice; yet would beg Leave to say a Word or two on the Subject.
Although some of the Negroes are vicious, (who doubtless may be punished and restrained
by the same Laws which are in Force against other of the King's Subjects) there are many
others of a quite different Character, and who, if made free, would soon be able as well as
willing to bear a Part in the Public Charges; many of them of good natural Parts, are discreet,
sober, honest, and industrious; and may it not be said of many, that they are virtuous and
religious, although their Condition is in itself so unfriendly to Religion, and every moral Virtue
except Patience. How many of that Number have there been, and now are in this Province,
who have had every Day of their Lives embittered with this most intollerable Reflection, That,
let their Behaviour be what it will, neither they, nor their Children to all Generations, shall
ever be able to do, or to possess and enjoy any Thing, no, not even Life itself, but in a Manner
as the Beasts that perish.
Felix’s Petition
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We have no Property. We have no Wives. No Children. We have no City.No
Country. But we have a Father in Heaven, and we are determined, as far as his
Grace shall enable us, and as far as our degraded contemptuous Life will admit, to
keep all his Commandments: Especially will we be obedient to our Masters, so long
as God in his sovereign Providence shall suffer us to be holden in Bondage.
It would be impudent, if not presumptuous in us, to suggest to your Excellency and
Honors any Law or Laws proper to be made, in relation to our unhappy State,
which, although our greatest Unhappiness, is not our Fault; and this gives us great
Encouragement to pray and hope for such Relief as is consistent with your
Wisdom, justice, and Goodness.
We think Ourselves very happy, that we may thus address the Great and General
Court of this Province, which great and good Court is to us, the best judge, under
God, of what is wise, just and good.
We humbly beg Leave to add but this one Thing more: We pray for such Relief
only, which by no Possibility can ever be productive of the least Wrong or Injury to
our Masters; but to us will be as Life from the dead.
Granville Sharp
Olaudah Equiano
Somerset Case, 1772
Somerset Case
James Somerset, slave of Charles Stewart, Virginian.
– Somerset enslaved in Africa at age 8, purchased
by British slavers, sold in Virginia to Scottish
merchant Charles Stewart.
– Stewart appointed customs collector in Boston
during Stamp Act, takes S.
– Somerset witnesses the constitutional crisis in
Boston during both Stamp Act and Townshend
Acts Crises.
– Stewart goes to England with Somerset, 1769.
– The two lived in London.
Somerset Case
– In 1771, Somerset runs away from Stewart, seeks freedom, hiding
in London free black community. About 3% of population- mostly
slaves, perhaps as many as 15,000 slaves in Great Britain.
– Stewart hires slave catchers in London to track down his property.
– After 56 days of freedom, captured and shackled: transported to
the vessel Ann and Mary about to sell for Jamaica.
– Stewart had decided to sell his troublesome slave in Jamaica:
profit, probably a form of a death sentence for Somerset.
– Three Londoners, probably Somerset’s god parents applied
directly to Mansfield for a writ of habeas corpus orders Captain
Knowles to produce the body of Somerset before sailing to hear
case of illegal detention and transport. Nov. 1771.
– Sharp hears of case and hires lawyers to argue on behalf of
Somerset on the King’s Bench, sees it as the test case on legality
of slavery in England.
William Murray, Lord Mansfield
Mansfield’s Decision (delivered orally,
transcribed variously):
• The power of a master over his slave has been different
in different countries. The state of slavery is of such a
nature that it is incapable of being introduced on any
reasons, , moral or political, but only positive law,
which preserves its force long after the reasons,
occasion, and time itself form which it was created, is
erased from memory. It is so odious that nothing can
be suffered to support it but positive law. Whatever
inconveniences, therefore, may follow from a decision,
I cannot say this case is allowed or approved by the law
of England, and therefore the black must be
discharged.
Mansfield’s Decision (delivered orally,
transcribed variously):
• The power of a master over his slave has been different
in different countries. The state of slavery is of such a
nature that it is incapable of being introduced on any
reasons, , moral or political, but only positive law,
which preserves its force long after the reasons,
occasion, and time itself form which it was created, is
erased from memory. It is so odious that nothing can
be suffered to support it but positive law. Whatever
inconveniences, therefore, may follow from a decision,
I cannot say this case is allowed or approved by the law
of England, and therefore the black must be
discharged.
Free Blacks and Slaves in the American
Revolution
• Fighting for the United States
• Fighting for the British Empire
Colonial Florida Militiamen
Tradition of African American Sailors
Soldier of the 1st Rhode Island
Regiment: Recruited from Slave and
Free Population.
1st Rhode Island Regiment in Action
Salem Poor, Served with Distinction,
Massachusetts Line of Continental
Army, 1775-1780
African Americans in Continental Army
and Revolutionary Militia
• July 1775, George Washington forbids
recruitment of any African American soldiers, but
manpower needs force him in November 1775 to
accept free blacks. Eventually allow slaves.
• Up to 5000 served. In 1777, close to 10% of
Continental Army was African American. The
Continental Army was last racially integrated U.S.
army until 1948.
• South Carolina and Georgia forbid any slaves or
free blacks to serve.
John Murray, Lord Dunmore, Royal
Governor of Virginia
Dunmore’s Proclamation, November
1775
• I do hereby further declare all indented Servants,
Negroes, or others, (appertaining to Rebels,) free that
are able and willing to bear Arms, they joining His
MAJESTY'S Troops as soon as may be, for the more
speedily reducing this Colony to a proper Sense of their
Duty, to His MAJESTY'S Crown and Dignity.
• GIVEN under my Hand on board the Ship WILLIAM by
Norfolk, the 7th Day of November in the SIXTEENTH
Year of His MAJESTY'S Reign.
• DUNMORE
• (GOD save the KING.)
Re-enactors Portraying Dunmore’s
Ethiopian Regiment
Battle of Kemp’s Landing, 1775
Virginia Law Responding to Dunmore’s
Proclamation
• WHEREAS lord Dunmore, by his
proclamation, dated on board the ship
William, off Norfolk, the 7th day of
November 1775, hath offered freedom to
such able-bodied slaves as are willing to
join him, and take up arms, against the
good people of this colony . . .that all
negro or other slaves, conspiring to rebel
or make insurrection, shall suffer death,
and be excluded all benefit of clergy.
Reference to Slaves and Dunmore’s
Proclamation in Declaration of
Independence
• “He has excited domestic insurrections
amongst us.”
Effects of Dunmore’s Proclamation:
Pennsylvania Evening Post, Nov. 1776
• “A gentlewoman, going along Second Street
[in Philadelphia], was insulted by a Negro near
Christ Church. And upon her reprimanding
him for his rude behavior, the fellow replied,
‘stay you d----d white bitch, till Lord Dunmore
and his black regiment come and then we will
see who is to take the wall.’”
Harry Washington (Background), One
of Several of George Washington’s
Slaves to Join the British
Sir Henry Clinton, Commander in Chief
of British Army in North America,
1778-82
Clinton’s Philipsburg (New York)
Proclamation, June 30, 1779
• “But I do strictly forbid any person to sell or
claim right over any Negro, the property of a
rebel, who may take refuge with any part of
this army: And I do promise to every Negro
who shall depart the rebel standard full
security to follow within these lines any
occupation he may think proper.”
African American Loyalist in Action
Henry Muhlenberg, Pennsylvania
Lutheran Minister overhears two
Northern slaves:
• “they secretly wished that the British
army might win, for then all Negro slaves
will gain their freedom. It is said that this
sentiment is almost universal among the
Negroes in America.”
Scale of Slave Revolt Under British
• 500,000 slaves in all thirteen rebellious colonies.
• Historians can document close to 20,000 left with evacuating British army
at end of war.
• In South Carolina with an African majority, one out of every four slaves
went over to British lines. In Georgia, where Royal rule was restored
briefly, three out of four slaves went to British lines.
• Some historians have estimated that over 100,000 slaves in total ran to
British lines, but Australian historian Cassandra Pybus argued that many of
the numbers were reported by hysterical Revolutionary authorities such as
Virginia Governor Thomas Jefferson and greatly exaggerated out of fear
and desire to solidify support for Revolution. She estimates closer to
40,000 probably tried to free themselves with the British which is still
close to 10% of all slaves.
• British Army viewed by slaves as liberators. Many Americans viewed the
Revolution as a war to protect slavery, property, and liberty. This was
particularly the case in the deep South.
Effects of Revolution
• Black Loyalists and Quest for Equality
• African Americans in the United States
– End of Slavery in North
– Growth of Slavery in South
– Growth of Racism in the United States, 1789-1830
Article Seven, Treaty of Paris
• All prisoners on both sides shall be set at
liberty, and his Brittanic Majesty shall with all
convenient speed, and without causing any
destruction, or carrying away any Negroes or
other property of the American inhabitants,
withdraw all his armies, garrisons, and fleets
from the said United States.
Sir Guy Carleton, British Commanderin-Chief North America, 1782-83.
Entry From “Book of Negroes”
• Ship Aurora bound for St. John's
• Billy Williams, 35, healthy stout man, (Richard Browne).
Formerly lived with Mr. Moore of Reedy Island, Caroline, from
whence he came with the 71st Regiment about 3 years ago.
• Rose Richard, 20, healthy young woman, (Thomas Richard).
Property of Thomas Richard, a refugee from Philadelphia.
• Daniel Barber, 70, worn out, (James Moore). Says he was
made free by Mr. Austin Moore of little York nigh 20 years
ago.
• Sarah Farmer, 23, healthy young woman, (Mrs. Sharp).
• Free Negress indented to Mrs. Sharp for one year.
• Barbarry Allen, 22, healthy stout wench, (Humphry Winters).
Property of Humphrey Winters of New York from Virginia.
Entry From “Book of Negroes”
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Elizabeth Black, 24, mulatto from Madagascar, (Mr. Buskirk). Free, indented when nine years
of age to Mrs. Courtland.
Bob Stafford, 20, stout healthy Negro, (Mr. Sharp). Taken from Mr. Wilkinson in Virginia by a
party from the Royal Navy about four years ago.
Harry Covenhoven, 24, [stout healthy Negro], (Mr. Buskirk). Came in two years ago from Mr.
Covenhoven in Jersey.
John Vans, 39, healthy, blind of his right eye, (Mr. Buskirk, Jr.). Taken in Pennsylvania a party
of the British Army about 6½ years ago; lived there with Sam Barber who he says had eight
months before given him his freedom.
Anthony Haln, 27, stout Negro, (Nicholas Beckle). His own property willed
Joyce, 12, healthy Negress, (James Moore). Lived with James Moore for 6 years; her father
died in the King's service.
Simson McGuire, 223, stout healthy Negro man, (John Buskirk). Came in to General Arnold in
Virginia from Benjamin Hill.
Bristol Cobbwine, 14, stout healthy Negro boy, (Richard Browne). Came from Woodbury,
Charlestown, South Carolina, with Major Grant of the King's American regiment about 4
years ago.
Paul, 19, [stout] mulatto, ([Richard Browne]). Came from Woodbury, Charlestown, South
Carolina, with Major Grant of the King's American regiment.
Reception of the American Loyalists by
Benjamin West
David George, Baptist Minister
Preaching in Nova Scotia (Later Moved
to Sierra Leone)
Artist’s Conception of Thomas Peters
(1738-1792)
Thomas Peters
• Born in Nigeria, 1738, enslaved by the French. In
November of 1776, Thomas Peters joined the
Black Pioneers, an all African American Unit in
the British Army, and attained the rank of
Sergeant. He migrated after the war to Nova
Scotia where black veterans who were promised
enough land to live only received one acre. Peters
become a political leader of Canadian Black
Loyalists and moves to England to petition the
British Government on their behalf.
Thomas Peters
• In England, he meets abolitionists Granville
Sharp and John Clarkson who are looking to
establish a “Province of Freedom” in a new
British African colony at Sierra Leone. He helps
recruit Nova Scotia Black Loyalists to migrate
there in 1792.
Granville Town, Province of Freedom,
Sierra Leone
From Nova Scotia to Sierra Leone
John Clarkson
Sierra Leone
• In Sierra Leone, Thomas Peters and other “Nova
Scotians” challenges the authority of Governor John
Clarkson for not living up to promises of allowing a
democratic form of colonial government and not to tax
black loyalists’ land there. Many want Peters to be
Governor. After Peters’s death, there is a revolt against
Sierra Leone Company attempts to tax the land of free
colonists and the British Government brings in regulars
and an army of free Maroons from Jamaica to crush
the revolt. Harry Washington was one of the rebels.
Royal government takes over and establishes arbitrary
rule.
Early U.S. Slavery
• At conclusion of Revolution, many in the
United States, including many prominent
people in upper South believe slavery to be a
“necessary evil.”
• In the deep South, particularly Georgia and
South Carolina, the Revolution was viewed as
epic struggle to preserve liberty premised in
property. Thus, it was a war to preserve
freedom and slavery.
End of Slavery in North, 1783-1861
• Immediate Abolition
• Gradual Abolition
Massachusetts
• Massachusetts slave, Mum Bett sues in state
court for her freedom, her lawyers argue that
slavery is unconstitutional given the 1780
Massachusetts constitution that stated: “all
men are born free and equal.”
• In 1783, Massachusetts Supreme Court
declares slavery unconstitutional and Bett
changes her name to Elizabeth Freeman.
Pennsylvania 1780 Gradual
Emancipation Act
• Every Negro and Mulatto Child born within this
State after the passing of this Act as aforesaid,
who would in Case this Act had not been made,
have been born a Servant for Years or life or a
Slave, shall be deemed to be and shall be, by
Virtue of this Act the Servant of such person or
his or her Assigns, who would in such Case have
been entitled to the Service of such Child until
such Child shall attain unto the Age of twenty
eight Year.
James Forten
Growth of Racism in Antebellum
Period
• Southerners increasingly defend slavery as a
“positive good.”
• Racism becomes more oppressive in Northern
and Western States
– Pennsylvania and Connecticut rescind free black
men’s rights to vote in 1830s.
– Only New Hampshire, Vermont, and
Massachusetts consistently allow black male
suffrage up to Civil War.
Further Reading:
• Gary Nash, The Forgotten Fifth: African Americans in the
Age of Revolution (2006).
• Cassandra Pybus, Epic Journeys of Freedom: Runaway
Slaves of the American Revolution and Their Global Quest
for Freedom (2006).
• Online Resources:
• U.K. Archives Materials on Black Loyalists:
http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/blackhistory
/work_community/loyalists.htm
• Nova Scotia Archives:
http://www.novascotia.ca/nsarm/virtual/africanns/results.
asp?Search=&SearchList1=2&Language=English
• PBS: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part2/2narr4.html