Mary Mackillop College Wakeley
Year 12
Community and Family Studies
HSC Core 3:
Parenting and Caring
Student Work Booklet
Mrs Kara Churchward
11
Part 1
–
Becoming
Parents & Carers
Becoming Parents and Carers
Parenthood is a lifelong role that creates many challenges and rewards for families. It begins with the arrival of
the first child and continues well into adult life. While parenting is the process of raising and nurturing children in
a family, caring is looking after the needs and wellbeing of another person. From these definitions a distinction
can be made between the two roles: parenting promotes the perspective of
Parenting
The process of raising and
development within the social unit of the family.
nurturing children in a
family
Caring
Consider also that:
Carers can be parents, parents can be carers, but not all carers are parents.
The process of looking
after the needs and
wellbeing of another
person due to their age,
illness and/or disability
Caring is an accepted part of life, and every individual will either give or require care at
some point in their life. Becoming a parent or carer is a huge responsibility. Parenting
starts at conception, and the roles and responsibilities of parents change as the child
matures. Caring can last a short period of time, such as babysitting for a night, or it can
last many years, such as looking after a parent or child with a disability.
Biological parents
A child’s biological parents (also known as genetic parents, birth parents or natural parents) are the two people
who contributed to that child’s genetic make-up and are therefore related to that child from the moment of
conception.
A biological parent has provided the genetic material – the sperm or ovum – that is required for parenting.
Generally, biological parents contribute genetic material as a result of sexual intercourse. However, with assisted
reproductive technologies, the creation of a foetus may involve other procedures.
Pregnancy
Pregnancy is the state that begins when a woman carries a fertilised egg inside her body: It is the nine-month
period from conception to birth. The egg is fertilised by a sperm cell, either through sexual intercourse or through
artificial insemination. The fertilised egg then implants itself into the lining of the uterus and develops into an
embryo, and later into a foetus.
In today’s society, many women are leaving pregnancy until later in life. Reproductive technologies such as invitro fertilisation (IVF) and gamete intra-fallopian transfer (GIFT) have assisted both older women and those who
have difficulty conceiving to become biological parents. These technologies will be discussed further below.
Planned pregnancy
Planned pregnancy occurs when the people involved have discussed the issue and decided to conceive a child.
There are physical, emotional and economic impacts that result from this decision. A planned pregnancy is
generally better for both the parents and the child. A planned pregnancy allows the parents to adapt their
lifestyle to make sure that they are prepared for the changes that a child can bring to their lives and their
relationship.
When a pregnancy is planned, both parents have time to discuss and decide on a number of issues involved in
raising a child, such as those relating to:
 financial stability
 work arrangements
 childcare arrangements
 housing modifications
 vehicle requirements
Unplanned pregnancy
Unplanned pregnancy occurs when the people involved have conceived a child unintentionally. Unplanned
pregnancy can occur due to a lack of education about contraception, resulting in misuse or ineffective use of
contraception, or unprotected sexual intercourse. An unplanned pregnancy makes it more difficult for the parents
to be prepared for the changes that a child can make to their lives and their relationship. Both parents can find it
challenging and stressful, and this often results in conflict. Issues that may cause conflict include decisions relating
to:
 parental responsibility for the child
 pregnancy termination or adoption
 age and capabilities of the parents
 marriage and custody issues
IVF and GIFT
In-vitro fertilisation (IVF) is an assisted reproduction technique in which fertilisation is accomplished outside the
body. During IVF, a woman is given fertility drugs to stimulate her ovaries to produce eggs, and the eggs are
retrieved by means of a minor surgical procedure. The eggs are then combined with the sperm cells in a
laboratory dish (in vitro is Latin for ‘in glass’, hence this procedure was once called creating a ‘test-tube baby’ by
the popular press).
Once an egg has been fertilised, the resulting embryo is transferred to the woman’s uterus, hopefully to develop
into a normal pregnancy. IVF has a success rate of approximately 25 to 35 per cent.
There are many reasons why some people might choose to go through IVF, including the following.
• The woman might have delayed pregnancy to establish her career, to travel or for some other reason, and
might then have found it difficult to conceive due to her age.
• The woman might have contracted a sexually transmitted infection (STI) such as chlamydia earlier in life, which
can, if untreated, lead to infertility.
• The woman might have a common condition known as endometriosis, which can lead to fertility problems.
• The woman’s fallopian tubes might be blocked or diseased.
• There might be a family or personal history of miscarriage or irregular births.
• The man’s sperm count might be low, and/or sperm motility (movement) might be poor.
GIFT
Gamete intra-fallopian transfer (GI FT) is a modified form of IVF in which, rather than occurring in the
laboratory, fertilisation occurs at the normal site of fertilisation—the fallopian tube. Because of this,
only women who have at least one functioning fallopian tube can undergo GI FT.
There must also be an adequate number of healthy sperm cells for this method to be used. The process
of GIFT involves placing two or three eggs, along with a prepared sample of sperm, into the fallopian
tube. From this point the process follows the usual way an egg begins its journey to the uterus. The egg
is allowed to fertilise within the fallopian tube, and then continues on to the uterus for implantation.
The purpose of IVF, GIFT and other assisted reproduction techniques is to provide infertile couples with
a chance to have biological children. However, numerous moral, ethical and religious debates exist with
regard to assisted reproductive technologies.
Some people might choose GIFT over other techniques because of the following social implications.
They may have fewer religious or moral objections to GIFT than to other techniques, as conception
occurs within the body.
• With GIFT, the fallopian tubes play the same role as they would in natural conception, so the embryo
arrives in the uterus at a later stage of development than it does with IVF.
• The chances of having a successful, full-term pregnancy can be significantly improved by using GIFT
rather than IVF, as the uterus is more receptive to embryo implantation due to the time the embryo
has taken to reach the uterus.
Source: Adapted from Concept Fertility Centre, 2009, ‘Gamete intra fallopian transfer (GIFT)’ factsheet.
Social implications of IVF/GIFT
Social implications are the positive or negative effects on an individual or group that occur as a result
of an action or choice made either by the individual themself or by another person or group.
Social implications can also relate to the effects on a parent and child or on the relationship between them, as a
result of an action or choice made by an individual or group.
For example, if a single woman chooses to use IVF to conceive a child, one negative social implication might be
that some of her friends do not support her decision, due to their religious beliefs. She might therefore be
excluded from her social network, which would then affect her socio-emotional wellbeing. However, a positive
implication for the woman might be that she has the opportunity to become a parent, thus fulfilling a lifelong
desire.
Mr Mum - Thomas Beatie – A 60 minutes story
When we heard it, probably just like you, we thought it was a hoax. A pregnant man? A real life Mr Mum?But then there was THAT photo.
Thomas Beatie, a bearded 33-yearold bloke with a baby bump that simply couldn’t be denied. A few months back, amidst an international
media storm, Thomas gave birth to a baby girl, Susan.
In fact, such was the fuss that the Beatie family went into hiding. On Sunday night, Thomas and his wife Nancy have emerged to speak to
Barbara Walters about their extraordinary medical journey. There’s also another big surprise in store, too. I should mention, some of what they
have to say is quite graphic and contains sexual references.
STORY—BARBARA WALTERS: Three hours by car from Portland, through mountains, deserts and farms, is Bend, Oregon. A former logging town,
many settled here for its natural beauty, others to raise a family. Its most famous family lives here, where the blinds are constantly drawn and
surveillance cameras surround the property.
THOMAS BEATIE: We shouldn’t have to do this but we just want our privacy.
BARBARA WALTERS: Inside, there is no Hollywood celebrity, just the Beaties. Thomas, 34, his wife Nancy, 46, and their 4-month-old daughter
Susan. For months they have rarely been seen in public. Do you see yourself as a traditional family?
THOMAS BEATIE: We do. We are a man, a woman and child. It is ironic that we are so different, and yet we’re just a family, just the same as
anyone else.
BARBARA WALTERS: They are but they’re not. You make a great many people very uneasy.
THOMAS BEATIE: Why is that?
BARBARA WALTERS: Here is a man with facial hair, with a moustache, with scars under his breasts … pregnant. It is a disturbing picture,
Thomas.
THOMAS BEATIE: I think that people are not used to seeing the image of a pregnant man. It is causing a lot of people to think.
THOMAS BEATIE: Thomas, what is a man?
THOMAS BEATIE: I feel that you’re not born a man, you become a man. However, I also do feel that I was born biologically male—in my brain.
BARBARA WALTERS: So it is what’s in my head?
THOMAS BEATIE: Yes. But when I wake up in the morning I feel like a man.
BARBARA WALTERS: You know, Thomas, there are people who say that just because you have taken testosterone, cut your hair short, had your
breasts removed, that does not make you a man. You have a woman’s reproductive organs, therefore, they say, you are a woman.
THOMAS BEATIE: I used my female reproductive organs to become a father.
BARBARA WALTERS: Aren’t you [trying] to have it both ways?
THOMAS BEATIE: I’m not trying to change people’s minds. Just asking them to open them.
BARBARA WALTERS: Before he was Thomas, she was Tracy and she grew up in Hawaii. You were a beautiful young girl.
THOMAS BEATIE: Thank you.
BAR BARA WALTERS: D id people used to say what a pretty girl you are?
THOMAS BEATIE: Yes, I get that comment a lot. People say ’how could you have changed to being a man, you were such a pretty girl? You could
have had any man you wanted.’
BARBARA WALTER S: In 1986, when Beatie was 12 years old, his mother committed suicide. His father, who he is not close to, pushed his
tomboy daughter into becoming a model. The pictures of you at that age are really quite beautiful. When you look in the mirror, what did you
see?
THOMAS BEATIE: Back then, I did not see an attractive young girl. I was just trying to please my father, putting on make-up I felt like I was
putting on a costume.
BARBARA WALTERS: In 1989, when you were just 14, you entered Miss Teen Hawaii USA contest. You were a finalist.
THOMAS BEATIE: I remember feeling uncomfortable on stage. I remember I smiled so hard my muscles just quivered for days afterwards. It was
just a real experience.
BARBARA WALTERS: You did not feel ’aren’t I beautiful’?
THOMAS BEATIE: Oh no, I felt plastic.
BAR BARA WALTERS: Although Beatie had several boyfriends, he now says he endured but hated sex. This is Tracy in an exercise video. Trading
modelling and pageants for karate and the gym, Tracey began to dress like a man and use the men’s bathroom. At 24, she began a lesbian
relationship with Nancy—a body builder, eventually moving in with her and her two daughters from a previous marriage.
THOMAS BEATIE: Nancy is a very unique person. She loves and likes people because of who they are on the inside. She was not attracted to me
because I was female or male, but because I was just me.
BARBARA WALTERS: Then, in 1998, Beatie decided to change genders. Psychological testing confirmed that Beatie identified as a man. She
began to medically transform her body, first by injecting the male hormone testosterone.
THOMAS BEATIE: It happened pretty rapidly. My voice started to change, it started to crack like I was going through puberty. It was an
incredible feeling. My bones felt stronger, my ligaments felt stronger. I started to grow facial hair.
BARBARA WALTERS: You love to shave?
THOMAS BEATIE: Well, yeah, not as much as my wife would like me to.
BARBARA WALTERS: In 2002, Beatie, still legally Tracy, had sex reassignment surgery to irreversibly remove her breasts. What was that like
when you saw yourself?
THOMAS BEATIE: Wow! That day was the most liberating day of my life. I literally felt like a weight was lifted from my chest.
BARBARA WALTERS: Now, people ask the big question—If you wanted to be a man why didn’t you have your female reproductive organs
removed?
THOMAS BEATIE: I do not feel like removing your sexual reproductive organs will make you any more of a man or any less of a woman and vice
versa. I just don’t see it that way.
BARBARA WALTERS: You also could have had phalloplasty in which a penis is, an artificial penis, is made. You decided not to do that.
THOMAS BEATIE: That’s right, taking flesh from your forearm and constructing something that appears to be a penis in my opinion does not
make you any more of a man.
BARBARA WALTERS: I’m sorry to be very graphic but …
THOMAS BEATIE: Well, anatomically the clitoris is analogous to a penis and with testosterone it grows so it looks like a penis, it acts like a penis
BARBARA WALTERS: So you make love the way a man and a woman make love?
THOMAS BEATIE: Yes.
BARBARA WALTERS: But you also have a vagina?
THOMAS BEATIE: I do.
BARBARA WALTERS: In 2003, Thomas and Nancy were legally married in Hawaii as husband and wife. Do you consider yourself a heterosexual
couple? You consider yourself ‘man and wife’?
NANCY BEATIE: Yes.
BARBARA WALTERS: What do you say to people who say you are still lesbians?
NANCY BEATIE: I don’t like labels, I am just in love with this person. This person was female in the beginning and is now male, this is who I am
attracted to.
BARBARA WALTERS: So, how does a man who was once a woman, who removed her breasts and injected testosterone, get pregnant? Thomas
had not had his period in eight years so the first step was to stop taking his male hormone. Once you stopped taking the testosterone did you
start to menstruate again?
THOMAS BEATIE: To think, me wanting to have a period—it’s crazy talk. It took about four months. Then my body regulated itself.
BARBARA WALTERS: Nancy had had a hysterectomy, adoption meant no biological link and hiring a surrogate to carry Thomas’s harvested eggs
was also a problem.
THOMAS BEATIE: We did not want to give that responsibility to someone else, a stranger. Who best to carry our baby but me?
BARBARA WALTERS: So, it wasn’t that you wanted to carry the child, it was that Nancy could not carry the child.
THOMAS BEATIE: That’s correct.
BARBARA WALTERS: In the end, the Beaties did it all themselves. You may even say that their baby was homegrown. First, they bought donor
sperm over the internet. How did you inseminate Thomas?
NANCY BEATIE: I got a syringe from a pet store.
BARBARA WALTERS: From a pet store?
NANC Y BEATIE: They have little syringes that you can feed, like, a bird. Then we just waited for his clock to tick.
BARBARA WALTERS: You injected the sperm into his cervix?
NANCY BEATIE: Yes. You have to do it within a minute. You only have 60 seconds to get it from the little vial into the syringe and on its way.
THOMAS BEATIE: I did the home pregnancy test and I saw one line show up right away, and within seconds, basically, the second line appeared
and I thought it was going to disappear but it didn’t, it stayed.
BARBARA WALTERS: You got your husband pregnant? What about maternal feelings?
THOMAS BEATIE: I did not feel maternal or motherly or womanly when pregnant. I felt like Nancy’s husband and I felt like the father of my
child. I passed by he mirror one day and out of the corner of my eye I saw a pregnant man and I was like, ‘Oh my God, I’m pregnant’.
BARBARA WALTERS: The media attention was relentless. Beatie became an instant target of the tabloids. And fodder for talk shows and latenight television. Overnight, all around the world, this picture and your situation aroused such feelings. How could you not know this was going
to happen?
THOMAS BEATIE: I didn’t realise there would be such a negative backlash. People said that my baby is an abomination.
BARBARA WALTERS: A re you afraid for your safety?
THOMAS BEATIE: We are aware of what is out there, we understand that there is a lot of hate in the world and there are crazy people. But we
cannot let fear rule our lives.
BARBARA WALTERS: Beatie received death threats, thousands of vile, hateful comments still litter the internet.
THOMAS BEATIE: This one here says ‘someone should kill that sick faggot, Dyke, what ever it is’, advocating my death and the death of my child.
And it makes me sick.
BARBARA WALTERS: However, the Beaties did find acceptance among their neighbours in Bend, Oregon, who threw a baby shower for Thomas
a few weeks before his due date. On 29th June, Nancy and Thomas Beatie drove to this hospital in Bend, Oregon, to deliver their baby. For 40
hours Thomas laboured. You had a vaginal birth, you did not have a Caesarean birth. Describe the moment your baby was born.
THOMAS BEATIE: My first response was fear because I did not see her move right away. But suddenly a leg or an arm moved and then there she
was. And she let out this soft cry.
BARBARA WALTERS: They named the baby Susan, after Thomas’s late mother. Did you cut the umbilical cord?
NANCY BEATIE: I did.
BARBARA WALTERS: While Thomas’s body went through his changes, so did his wife Nancy.
NANC Y BEATIE : When he got pregnant, my body started changing. My breasts started lactating.
BARBARA WALTERS: Really?
NANCY BEATIE: Without anything, like I was getting ready to breast-feed my baby.
BARBARA WALTERS: And you lactate now and you breast-feed the baby?
NANCY BEATIE: I have been breastfeeding her for 3.5 months.
THOMAS BEATIE: They have an incredibly strong bond.
NANC Y BEATIE : I am so proud of Thomas because he did this for us. And for me.
BARBARA WALTERS: Thomas, are you the baby’s mother or are you the baby’s father.
THOMAS BEATIE: I am my daughter’s father, and that is all I will ever be to her. Nancy is Susan’s mother.
BARBARA WALTERS: But it was not your sperm, it was your eggs. The eggs are associated with woman, the mother. Sperm with the father.
THOMAS BEATIE: I did not let pregnancy define who I was, I did not say ’I am pregnant therefore I am a woman‘. I had a solid male gender
identity all the way through this and it just goes to prove that ‘mother’ and ‘father’ are social terms.
BARBARA WALTERS: Life in the Beaties’ home is pretty typical. Thomas tends the garden, Nancy breast-feeds the baby. They change her, bathe
her, dress her and play with her.
NANCY BEATIE: We are just an ordinary, normal family. Nothing really different about us.
BARBARA WALTERS: D o you want to have another baby?
THOMAS BEATIE: We do. And that is the reason why I am not back on my testosterone. We figure we want Susan to be a big sister.
BARBARA WALTERS: Have you been inseminated yet?
NANCY BEATIE: Yes, I have.
BARBARA WALTERS: When?
NANCY BEATIE: A month ago …
THOMAS BEATIE: Three weeks ago.
BARBARA WALTERS: You inseminated Thomas again? Are you pregnant?
THOMAS BEATIE: Yes, I am.
BARBARA WALTERS: I don’t even know what to say.
THOMAS BEATIE: I am. I’m pregnant again.
BARBARA WALTERS: So you’re going to go through this whole thing again? I’m speechless.
THOMAS BEATIE: I can see that.
NANCY BEATIE: I thought you would be.
SOURCE: Mr Mum by Barbara Walters, 60 Minutes
21 November 2008 http://www.sixtyminutes.ninemsn.com.au/stories/669575/mr-mum
Legal implications of IVF/GIFT
Legal implications are the positive or negative legal consequences or commitments that occur as a
result of an action or choice made by an individual or group.
Before the introduction of the legislation referred to in the article ‘NSW passes new IVF adoption laws’ below,
one negative legal implication of IVF was that people undergoing IVF were not legally allowed to apply to adopt a
child. With the new legislation, introduced in 2008, this has changed.
Another positive legal implication of this legislation is that long-term foster carers now continue to receive their
allowance if they apply to adopt the child in their care. According to the article, this has resulted in many more
foster carers applying to adopt the children in their care.
NSW passes new IVF adoption laws
People undergoing IVF treatment in New South Wales will no longer be barred from applying to adopt a
child, under new laws passed by State Parliament. The legislation also means foster carers will be able to
keep their allowance if they proceed to adoption and children will have better access to records.
Provisions for Aboriginal children to maintain family and community contacts have also been strengthened.
The Community Services Minister, Linda Burney, says the prospect of a new system has already had a
positive effect. ‘Since we announced the intention to change these laws last September, there has really
been a marked increase in the number of people applying or inquiring about adoption, particularly from
long-term foster carers,’ she said.
Source: ABC News, 28 November 2008, http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2008/11/28/2432148.htm.
Learning Activities
1. What do IVF and GIFT stand for?
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2. What are some of the things a couple might consider when planning to have a child?
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3. What are some of the consequences of an unplanned pregnancy?
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4. Outline what it means to be a parent
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5. After reading the 60 minutes transcript, “Mr Mum”, outline the social implications involved.
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6. Read the article, NSW passes new IVF adoption laws, identify the legal implications of IVF adoption
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7. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of both IVF and GIFT
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8. Read the article below, ‘Fertile ground’, and list the legal and social implications that might be faced
by an egg donor and by a couple seeking a donor. You might want to provide your answer in the form
of a table, as shown below.
Egg donor
Legal implications
Social implications
Infertile couple
Legal implications
Social implications
Fertile ground
For many couples, a donor egg provides a last chance in their effort to conceive a child. Here, a multiple egg
donor and a woman desperate for a baby reveal what egg donation means to them.
Faith Haugh, 38, lives in Altona, Victoria, with her husband, Glenn Watson, and daughter Ashlyn, 19. She has made 38
egg donations resulting in 17 donor children, with another baby on the way.
I clearly remember the day I first decided to become a donor. I was browsing The Age newspaper when I spotted an ad
placed by a couple who’d had one child, stillborn, and had been trying for 10 years to have another. They
were looking for an egg donor. The ad touched me. I’d never known anyone who was infertile. I had no idea what was
involved but, at 23, I knew that I was fertile. I’d had Ashlyn the day before my 19th birthday.
The way egg donation works is that the donor and recipient are put on the contraceptive pill to bring their menstrual
cycles in sync. Then you have a tablet to suppress ovulation and you start taking daily hormone injections to help
produce more eggs. Then there’s a scan to see how many eggs [are produced] and what size they are. They’re graded,
like the ones you buy in cartons! You give yourself a ‘trigger’ injection to release the eggs. I used to average between 18
and 25 eggs. Out of those, only two might be viable.
It’s not a comfortable process and that deters people from donating. There are women who go through the whole
process and when they wake up from the anaesthetic, they change their mind. Once the eggs are fertilised, they’re the
property of the couple. Before that, they’re yours. I was counselled, but I was blasé. Because it was anonymous, there
was no personal attachment. The couple had twin girls—that’s as much as I knew. Over the next three years, I did
another three anonymous donations. Once, I got a thank-you card, and it would have been nice if the others had done
that, too. But that’s their prerogative. Before 2006, they hadn’t introduced the law in Victoria that at the age of 18 a
donor child can find out how they were conceived. [Similar legislation has been passed in NSW, but not yet
implemented.]
I stopped donating because my partner at the time didn’t approve. After we broke up, I saw a two-line ad in the public
notices in the paper. I responded because I thought no one else would. That first face-to-face donation was
an introduction to what people go through. It all changed for me then; I became passionate about helping people.
These couples spend years and years doing the right thing—not drinking, not smoking—doing anything they can to be
parents. I was never a compassionate person—I never went out of my way to give to charity—but with this I
am compassionate. With Ashlyn, I was pregnant in March, married in September and divorced by December. I
struggled, working days and nights. I wasn’t around for bedtime stories. To see people have the patience they
do with their children…I think I would be like that now.
A lot of women think that sisters or nieces are the best people to help [by donating an egg], but it doesn’t make it better.
The recipient might worry if the donor is playing with the child, wondering if she’s regretting it. It can bring up
problems. I have never asked to see the children. Parents always say they would love to keep in touch but sometimes
they change their minds, and that’s OK.
I do ask for a phone call on the day of the birth to find out if everyone’s OK, and what the sex is. I get a buzz out of
keeping in touch with the parents. We catch up and talk about our lives—it’s not just based on the children. I always
ask, ‘How is your gorgeous girl/boy?’ It helps reassure the parents that I don’t feel any connection to their children, and
I don’t.
Ashlyn doesn’t look at the children like they’re half-brothers or -sisters. She’s met the ones I’m in touch with. I started
telling her about it when she was eight or nine. She says she’d like to do it one day.
Friends haven’t always understood. We live in a society where there are few people who will do something for nothing.
Often the nurses would ask me if I was doing it for money. I was insulted. I do it because I can. [Federal legislation
prevents payment for eggs, sperm or embryos.] I have been offered money. A woman and her husband offered me
$30,000. I don’t own a house. I was driving a 15-yearold car. I said no.
You are legally permitted to donate to create 10 families and I’ve got my 10. But I do seminars and I’ve got six other
couples to help. I’ve only had one failure; there were sperm issues. Each time it didn’t work I was so disappointed. She
tried everything—if you’d told her to chant naked on a full moon, she would have done it. She ended up just getting too
old and her husband told her he wanted to give it up.
Glenn and I have been together for eight years, and married for four months. He didn’t think about the donations until
he saw me talk at a seminar and looked around at the people. Having said that, he reckons I’ve done my bit for
humanity. He’d prefer us to have a child of our own now.
Part of me would love to have another child but I’ll be 39 this year, so I doubt it will happen. I’m not sure I’m ready to
change my life that much. But the biological clock is ticking. Melbourne-based Jannie Meli, a nanny, and Joseph Di
Nuzzo, a postal worker, have been together for eight years and trying for a baby for six. After two miscarriages, Jannie
was advised by a doctor to look for an egg donor. She is still looking.
I cried when I was told I needed a donor. We had conceived twice on our own in 2003 and 2004, but I miscarried both
times. At that point, it was suggested we consider IVF. I was 40 and I knew that the chances of conception were
diminishing. We tried the IVF process three times, but they couldn’t get the eggs they needed. So I went to a specialist.
He was a man of few words who took one look at my file and told me not to come back unless I had an egg donor with
me.
I just cried. I’d been given pamphlets during my IVF treatment and I knew how difficult it was to find a donor. Then,
within a week, we found a donor. I couldn’t believe it. We told a girl we knew from bingo what the specialist had told us
and she said, ‘I can do that.’ It was so simple. Unfortunately, she had abnormal cells in a pap smear. That ruled her out.
We started searching for a new donor. We talked to everyone we knew, asking if they were interested— friends, friends
of friends—but nobody wanted to do it. You get a lot of negativity; the idea of hormone injections turns them off. We
even appeared on Kerri-Anne Kennerley’s morning TV show. We got a huge response, but most women turned out to be
too old. The younger the donor, the better the chance that a healthy pregnancy will result. I’m looking for someone over
21 and under 35, who already has kids of her own. I wouldn’t like to use a donor who hasn’t had a child. There’s a 1 per
cent chance that a donation might affect their ability to conceive later on, and I’d hate to take that risk. I know donating
is not without its risks. There’s the possibility of overstimulating the ovaries, which can make you very unwell or, in
rare cases, kill you. That’s one reason I wouldn’t object to paying cash if it wasn’t illegal. You get to a point where you’d
be happy to pay for that person’s time and effort. We did find one potential donor, but it didn’t work out. She seemed
lovely at first, but she had an issue with the fact that I’m a bit
overweight—the doctor told me it’s only a matter of losing three to six kilos as far as fertility is concerned. She
ended up not wanting to donate eggs because she didn’t want ‘her’ child to be a ‘fat child’. She didn’t seem to
understand that it wasn’t going to be her child. Joe and I are not jealous people and are happy for a donor to
have occasional contact with the child, but if you’re going to have hassles down the track it’s not worth starting.
We’ve had three potential donors in all. The last one I found through a friend. She’d sit in the waiting room and
not even acknowledge us, but she never missed an appointment—except the last one. My weight was an issue with her
as well, and she told the counsellor she was annoyed with me for not losing it faster. Plus she was worried about the 1
per cent chance she might lose her fertility. Joe and I call the last two ‘time wasters’. You’re not talking about a week out
of our lives; you could be talking three to four months. They’ve taken that time away from us. I’ve always wanted to be a
mum. If I had my own way, I’d have my child myself, but I don’t have a choice. When something’s out of your control,
you have to do what you can. I’m not a person to give up. Sometimes I wonder if I’m getting too old for it. I look fine, but
what you feel like is a different thing. We’ll keep going as long as we’re both happy to do so and can afford to. So far, it’s
cost us about $6000, but we’ve never managed a full cycle of IVF. Joe’s with me all the way. He will often turn to me and
say, ‘I wonder what our baby will look like.’ He wants a Jacinta. I tell him it might be a boy.
For more information on egg donation, go to the Essential Baby egg donor forum.
SOURCE: ‘FERTILE GROUND’ BY ALLISON TAIT, SUNDAY LIFE MAGAZINE P. 17, THE SUN HERALD, 21 JANUARY 2009.
http://www.essentialbaby.com.au/parenting/conception/fertile-ground-20090121-7m5j.html
Social parents
Social parents are people who have chosen to take on a parenting role but who do not contribute to the genetic
make-up of their child. Social parents do, however, have the same responsibilities as biological parents in meeting
the needs of the child.
A person can become a social parent through:
• Fostering
• Adoption
• Surrogacy
• Step-parenting
An easy way to remember the four types of social parents discussed in the CAFS syllabus is with the acronym
‘FASS’.
HSC Question:
2005
1. Which of the following is an example of how an adult may become a social parent
a. Marrying a childless partner
b. Caring for a neighbour’s child
c. Adopting a child from overseas
d. Teaching a child for an extended period of time
Fostering
Fostering is where a person or a couple becomes the temporary parent or carer of a child or children who are
unable to live with their own family. Fostering can occur for a short-term or a long-term period—from one or two
nights to a few days, weeks, months or years. Children usually go into foster care because they are at risk of harm
or neglect, or because their parent or carer requires respite.
Legal implications of fostering
The legal implications of fostering include the fact that, although the foster parents take on the day-to-day
responsibilities of parenting the child in their care, they have no legal say in the decisions that affect the child,
such as those relating to education or health care. The birth parents have not given up their legal parental rights,
and therefore have the final say in issues relating to the raising of their child. (However, this situation can be
affected by other factors; for example if the child is in the care of the state, the courts make decisions in the best
interest of the child.)
This situation can have a negative effect on the foster parents’ wellbeing. For example, the foster parents might
need to take the child to a doctor (which is their responsibility), but they are not then able to make any medical
decisions relating to the child in their care, as they have no legal right to do this. Imagine how frustrating it would
be to be caring for a child on a day-to-day basis, developing a relationship and a bond with that child, but then not
being able to be a part of the decision-making processes that directly affect that child. A foster parent’s level of
emotional wellbeing could be severely depleted under these circumstances.
However, the stability that foster parents provide for the children in their care has many positive implications for
both the child and the carer. These are discussed under the heading Social implications of fostering below.
Social implications of fostering
The social implications of fostering are many and varied. Whether the foster care occurs for a brief or an
extended period of time, both the carers and the child may encounter many highs and lows, rewards and
disappointments, as well as some challenging situations.
Fostering can have many positive social implications for both the child and the carer. For example, if a foster carer
can provide the stable home environment that the child has been lacking, this can positively affect the child’s
socio-emotional wellbeing, as the foster carer provides the safety, security and support of a predictable home
environment that the child needs during a challenging and complicated time in their life. This in turn increases the
foster carer’s socio-emotional wellbeing, as they know that they are having a positive effect on the child.
Other positive social implications of fostering include the following:
• It allows the child to have their needs better met. This encourages the child to develop a healthy trusting
relationship with their foster parents, enhancing both the child’s and the parents’ level of socio-emotional and
physical wellbeing.
• It helps the child’s biological parents by giving them time to adjust their lifestyle in order to better meet the
needs of their children. The foster parents are therefore contributing to society by helping people to get back on
their feet during a difficult time without having to worry about their child.
• Children placed in foster care come from a wide variety of cultural and social backgrounds. In most cases
children are matched with a foster parent or family from a similar cultural and/or social background. This can
result in further positive social implications for the child, as their cultural needs and socio-emotional wellbeing are
suitably catered for.
A possible negative social implication is the negative effect that fostering might have on the child’s and the foster
parents’ socio-emotional wellbeing. A child who has had a difficult or traumatic family background might find it
difficult to settle in to a foster family, which can be physically and emotionally draining on both the child and the
foster parents.
Other negative social implications of fostering include the following:
• Dealing with the emotional and behavioural difficulties that a child may experience when staying with a new
family can have a significant effect on the foster parents’ socio-emotional and physical wellbeing. Caring for a
child with special needs can also be extremely difficult and can cause stress and concern for the foster parents,
who in some cases may feel that they are unable to meet the special needs of the child.
• Becoming emotionally attached to the child can make it extremely difficult when the child is ready to return to
their biological parents.
• Conflict between the foster child and other children in the foster family can cause significant pressure on the
foster parents to ensure that positive relationships are maintained and that each child feels valued.
• Many other factors can also negatively affect the social parenting relationship, such as problems with birth
parents, friends or other significant people in the child’s life; caring for a child with a history of abuse who
therefore has special behavioural needs; caring for a child who is in trouble with the law; caring for a child who
discloses an unreported incident of abuse; caring for a child who wants to leave foster care; and disruption or
breakdown of the fostering placement.
Adoption
Adoption is the legal process by which an individual or a couple gains the legal rights and responsibilities for the
care of a child whose birth parents are unable to or have chosen not to care for that child.
Legal implications of adoption
Once a child has been adopted, the birth parents of that child no longer have any legal obligations towards the
child. They also give up their rights to custody and guardianship of the child. A possible negative legal implication
of this might be if the birth parents changed their mind at some later time and wanted to take the child back into
their care.
A positive legal implication of the adoption process is that the adoptive parents are legally acknowledged as the
parents of the child. Adoptive parents have full legal rights (and responsibilities) to make decisions relating to
their adoptive child. This can increase the wellbeing of the whole family, as it means that all its members are
legally recognised as a family unit.
Social implications of adoption
The process of adoption can be a challenging and exhausting experience for all involved. However, it has the
capacity to have many positive social implications, as it allows a family to share their love, compassion and
resources with a child whose birth parents may not have been able to provide these things. This increases the
whole family’s socio-emotional wellbeing.
In some cases, developing a good relationship with the child’s birth parents can lead to further positive social
implications for the child, as it can enable them to develop a connection with their birth family and therefore gain
a greater sense of identity. However, this is not always possible, as the birth parents may be deceased, may not
want to remain involved in the child’s life or may be unable to be found.
Negative social implications of adoption can include the adoptive parents feeling concerned or fearful at the
prospect of telling their child that that they were adopted, and fearing that they might lose the love of their
adopted child if the child decides to seek out their biological parents. The emotional impact of this situation on
the child, the adoptive parents and the biological parents can be extremely significant.
A negative social implication of adoption for the child might be difficulty in developing a sense of identity, due to
having no knowledge of or contact with their biological parents. This issue can particularly affect children who
have been adopted from another country (inter-country adoption) and are from a different ethnic background
from their adoptive parents. The negative social implications of this situation might include the child feeling
disconnected from their culture and from their biological parents, which would affect the child’s socio-emotional
wellbeing.
Another potential negative social implication of inter-country adoption might be that in some cases the adoptive
family might encounter negative attitudes towards their unique family structure. This would make it difficult for
them to feel accepted within society, thus negatively affecting their socio-emotional wellbeing.
Surrogacy
Surrogacy refers to an arrangement where a woman becomes pregnant and gives birth to a child for another
person who wishes to become a parent, with the intention of handing the child over to that person immediately
after the birth.
There are numerous situations in which a surrogacy arrangement might be considered, including those shown in
Figure 1.3.
Legal implications of surrogacy
There is no legislation in New South Wales that bans surrogacy; however, people hoping to have a child through a
surrogacy arrangement face major difficulties.
The negative legal implications of this form of social parenting include the fact that parents who have a child
through a surrogate have no legal rights over the child. The woman who gave birth to the child is legally
recognised as that child’s mother. The legal framework in place today makes it difficult for a woman other than
the one who gave birth to the child to gain legal recognition as that child’s mother. Therefore, if a dispute
regarding a surrogacy arrangement goes to court, the woman who gave birth to the child will most likely be
understood to be the true and legal mother of that child.
Another negative legal implication is that in New South Wales, the woman who gives birth to the child has no
legal right to ensure that the surrogacy agreement is enforced. Thus, if the prospective parents wish to withdraw
from the surrogacy arrangement, they have no legal obligation to take the child.
One possible way of overcoming these negative legal implications might be for the prospective parents to adopt
the child. However, this option is complicated, because the Adoption of Children Act 1965 (NSW) does not allow
private adoption agreements; adoptions may only occur through the Department of Community Services. That
Department has been approached in the past to facilitate adoption agreements in private surrogacy situations but
has refused, instead referring the people involved to the custody and guardianship arrangements available under
the Family Law Act 1975. The legislation relating to surrogacy is constantly being reviewed and may be amended
in future.
Social implications of surrogacy
Surrogacy can bring joy and happiness to parents who are unable to conceive a child naturally, thus increasing
their socio-emotional wellbeing. It can have positive social implications if it is viewed as an arrangement that
people in this situation are free to make in order to become parents, as long as the arrangement does not cause
any damage or hurt to others.
Figures 1.4 and 1.5 show some of the possible positive and negative social implications of surrogacy, respectively.
HSC Question:
2004
7. What is surrogacy?
a. It is when a person cares for a child on a temporary basis
b. It is when parents elect to raise a child who is not biologically their own
c. It is when a woman volunteers to conceive a child for another person or persons
d. It is when parents bring children from a previous union into a new relationship to create a
blended family
2006
2.
Which is an example of surrogacy
a. A woman uses donated sperm to fall pregnant
b. A woman offers to carry a child for her infertile sister
c. A non-custodial parent provides financial support for their child
d. A child is neglected and cannot be cared for in the family home.
Surrogacy is not an easy option. In today’s society there are
many controversial issues and debates regarding surrogacy.
One issue to consider is the way our society views sperm
donation as an accepted practice to address male infertility,
while viewing the use of surrogacy to address female
infertility in a much less favourable light. Consequently the
social implications for this form of parenting are extensive.
Step-parenting
Step-parenting occurs when a person takes on the role of parent of a child who is not biologically related to them,
as a result of marriage or a de facto relationship.
Legal implications of step-parenting
A step-parent does not have any legal rights over their stepchild, unless one of the child’s biological parents has
provided specific authorisation in writing. Without such authorisation, a step-parent cannot legally:
• collect the child from school
• sign a legal consent form for a school trip
• take the child to a doctor
• sign a medical consent form for a hospital procedure for the child.
Parents now liable for adult stepchild
Step-parents may be held financially liable for their partner’s grown-up children even if the marriage ends, following a
ground-breaking court ruling. The full bench of the Family Court has ruled that such children have the same
rights as biological children in claims for maintenance, meaning they can seek help for two purposes—education or disabled
support.
In the case of a disabled child, the time limit for such support could technically be unlimited. The precedent was set after a
test case highlighted in the court’s annual report as a significant development in case history. The court, with the Chief
Justice, Justice Alastair Nicholson, presiding, ruled that the Family Law Act does give the Family
Court and the Federal Magistrates Court the power to order the same provisions for stepchildren.
The education criteria is usually interpreted to mean a first degree or formal tertiary qualification, although family
lawyers say the interpretation can depend on the child’s family background and parents’ financial circumstances.
As with all Family Court cases, the identities of those involved are protected, but the case was mounted by a woman living in
NSW known only as ‘E’, who turns 20 later this month. In 1997, shortly before she turned 14, her mother died from cancer
after having remarried four years earlier. The woman’s stepfather, who lives in the
ACT , had lived with her and her mother since 1991.
The woman sought maintenance from her natural father of $150 a week and the same amount from her stepfather, so that
she could go to university. She later reached an agreement with her natural father that he would pay her $50 a week. The
issue of whether she could pursue the claim from her stepfather was then referred to the full bench to determine whether
the court had jurisdiction. The stepfather’s lawyer, George Brzostowski, argued that the law as drafted was unclear and did
not spell out that stepparents could be liable in the same way as biological parents.
However, the court ruled that Parliament would have intended the same outcome for step-parents. E’s case will now go back
before a federal magistrate to determine whether the stepfather should have to pay and, if so, how much.
Unlike cases of biological relationships, where a parent’s obligation stands regardless, in cases involving stepchildren the
magistrate must consider the quality of the relationship between the child and the stepfather.
No case has yet been put forward to test whether the law also stands for the children of de facto relationships.
Mr Brzostowski said the ruling raised a number of philosophical issues of which many potential step-parents would be
unaware.
‘You could have a situation where you assume responsibility for a healthy child but that child later becomes disabled and
needs financial support which technically can continue until the step-parent retires or loses income,’ he said. ‘The position
seems particularly difficult if the stepchild has rejected the step-parent for whatever reasons. If the marriage is over should
you really have to have an ongoing financial obligation? ‘Under one analysis, it’s galling to think a person who may have
emotionally rejected a step-parent can then turn around and legally require the step-parent to fund them financially—
especially when the payment is then taxed against the step-parent.’
Source: Sarah Crichton, 4 January 2003, Sydney Morning Herald,
http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2003/01/03/1041566224055.html.
A step-parent is also not legally obliged to provide financial support for their stepchild. However, often stepparents do provide financial support for their stepchildren. In some cases this might lead to negative legal
implications, as shown in the article ‘Parents now liable for adult stepchild’ on this page.
Social implications of step-parenting
Positive social implications of step-parenting can include the following:
• Children in this situation are cared for in a two-parent family, which can mean that there are more adults
to care for them than there would have been if their biological parent was single. This situation may
increase the child’s level of wellbeing, as they may feel valued and cared for and have their needs met by
more people.
•
The step-parent may provide an additional role model for the child, introducing different perspectives on
various issues in life, including career opportunities and interpersonal relationships.
•
The child’s biological parent may develop better parenting skills, as they now have a partner who is
supportive and who makes them happy. As a result they may have an improved relationship with their
child. Negative social implications of step-parenting can include the following.
If the child is used to having their biological parent all to themselves, when their parent’s new partner
comes along, the child may feel jealous and resent the step-parent, making life difficult for all those
involved.
•
•
The child may not be able to connect with the step-parent, as they may have little in common. Different
ideas about how to parent, including having different values and using different discipline techniques,
between the biological parent and the step-parent may cause confusion and conflict for all those
involved. This would significantly decrease the family’s level of wellbeing.
•
It is important for both the biological parent and the step-parent to ensure equal treatment of all children
in the family, regardless of whether they are biological children or stepchildren, as unequal treatment
could have a negative effect on the wellbeing of the family. Equality must exist if a high level of wellbeing
is to be achieved by all those involved.
HSC Question
2001
Q17 (c)
Identify ONE form of social parenting, and examine the factors influencing parenting and caring
relationships within this family situation.
15 marks
Learning Activities
1. What is the difference between a biological parent and a social parent?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
2. Identify what the acronym FASS stands for with regard to social parenting
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
3. What are the four different types of social parents?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
4. What are some of the legal implications of adoption for the adoptive parents?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
5. What are two of the social implications of fostering for the foster parents?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
6. What does surrogacy involve?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
7. Provide two examples of each type of social parenting and the situations they may arise from
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
8. Distinguish some of the differences between female and male parental responses
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Carer Relationships
A carer is someone who assists another person who is unable to satisfy their own needs. A person might require
care due to their age, illness and/or a disability—these factors are easy to remember by using the acronym ‘AID’.
The carer’s role may be voluntary, where they offer support without receiving payment, or they may be paid to
provide care. (The roles of both voluntary and paid carers will be discussed further below.) Regardless of whether
they are being paid, the aim of any carer is to provide high-quality support that helps to meet the needs of the
person they care for. This can be achieved in a variety of ways, such as:
•
•
•
•
•
Providing a stable living environment
Providing access to family and social
networks
Organising appropriate forms of transport
Involving the person in decision making
Administering medication
•
•
•
Ensuring that the person’s privacy and
dignity are maintained at all times
Offering a safe, supportive and nurturing
environment, both emotionally and
physically
Respecting the person’s cultural and
linguistic background, and ensuring that they
feel comfortable in their environment.
Who cares? 2.5 million Australians: ABS
Around 2.5 million Australians aged 15 years and over care for someone at home because of a disability or old age, according to a new report
released today by the ABS.
A Profile of Carers in Australia brings together information from a range of surveys conducted between 2003 and 2006 to paint a picture of
carers in contemporary Australian society.
All carers
• Women were more likely than men to be carers (17% of women and 14% of men).
• Carers tended to be an older group. The median age of the carer population aged 15 years and over was 48 years.
• Of parents aged 35–54 years, 22% of mothers and 15% of fathers were carers. About half of these carers were caring for a child with a
disability. The other half were combining raising young children with care of another relative or friend.
• For all age groups, carers were more likely to have a disability themselves (35% of all carers had a disability compared with 22% of all
people).
Primary carers
A primary carer is the main provider of care to someone in the core activities of daily living such as dressing, eating or moving around the
house. One in five carers were primary carers.
• Almost one-quarter (23%) of primary carers were caring for a child with a disability and almost two-thirds of these carers were spending 40
hours or more per week in their caring role. Just over 40% of parents caring for a child with a disability said they needed access (or more
access) to respite care.
• 42% of all primary carers were caring for a spouse/partner; 26% were children caring for a parent; 23% were parents caring for a child.
• Primary carers spent more time on housework and less time sleeping than other people did.
• While one-third of primary carers reported negative effects on their relationship with their spouse or other family members, an equal
proportion felt that caring drew them closer to the person they were caring for.
Further details can be found in A Profile of Carers in Australia (cat. no. 4448.0) available for free download from the ABS website
http://www.abs.gov.au
Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics, media release 102/2008, 14 October 2008,
http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/mediareleasesbyCatalogue/0A06DAA4F406F022CA2574E1000F8F4E?OpenDocument
Voluntary Carer
A voluntary carer is someone who provides care for another person without being paid. Voluntary carers provide
the majority of care in today’s society, saving the community billions of dollars each year.
\
Caring across the life cycle
Across Australian society, people provide unpaid care to others. Many people raise children and support them during their early years
of life, and some continue to support children into young adulthood and beyond. At some stage in their life, many people provide
care for children, partners, family members or friends who have a disability, long term illness or problems related to old age. Some
people provide care for more than one person at the same time in their life, and some provide care for many years. The 2006 Census
showed that over 5 million adults (31% of men and 41% of women) provided care to their own child, another child, or a person with a
disability.
According to the 2006 Census, 5% of young people aged 15–24 (119,400 young people) provided unpaid care to a person with a
disability. One-quarter of these young carers lived with a person, commonly a parent, who needed assistance with core activities
because of a disability, health condition lasting 6 months or more, or old age.
Parents with the dual responsibilities of raising children and caring for another person, often an elderly parent, are sometimes called
the ‘sandwich generation’. Of all parents living in a family with children under 15, around 447,500 (13%) had also provided unpaid
care to a person because of a disability, long term illness or problems related to old age. Two thirds of these parents were women.
Looking after children who were not their own was most common for people aged in their fifties, sixties and seventies. This is the
stage of life when many people become grandparents, and have the opportunity to look after their grandchildren. Around 23% of
women and 12% of men aged 60–69, the peak group, had looked after a child who was not their own.
Of people who provided unpaid care, people 65 years and over were more likely than younger people to live with a person who
needed assistance because of a disability, long term health condition or problems related to old age (37% compared with 24%). Most
of this group of 90,600 co-resident carers lived with a partner who needed assistance (71,100). In 35,500 couple families both
partners had a need for assistance. Two thirds of these partners were 65 years and over (66%), and a high proportion had provided
unpaid care (43% of women and 35% of men).
For more details of ABS information related to carers, see also ‘A profile of carers in Australia’ (cat. no. 4448.0).
Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics, May 2009, ‘Family and community connections’ (cat. no. 4918.0), http://www.abs.gov.au.
HSC Question
2007
2. Which of the following is best described as a voluntary carer?
(A) A Home and Community Care nurse
(B) A before and after school care worker
(C) A person caring for a chronically ill parent
(D) A nanny caring for two children in their home
Paid Carer
A paid carer is someone who provides care for another person on a regular basis for payment. Paid carers usually
have qualifications in the field in which they specialise, such as health care (nurses, doctors) or education (earlychildhood, primary or secondary teachers).
Other types of paid carers include:
• Foster parents
• Home nursing care providers
• Childcare workers
• Nannies
• After-school carers
• Babysitters
Organisations that employ paid carers include:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Department of Community Services
Community organisations
Hospitals
Nursing homes
Hostels
Workplace-based crèches
Family day care providers
Vacation care providers
Early-intervention centres.
Planned and unplanned care
A person might require care due to a variety of circumstances, including:
•
•
•
•
Accident
Illness
Surgery
Disability
•
•
•
Mental illness
Pregnancy
Age (including babies and children and the
elderly).
The circumstances leading to a person requiring care can be either planned or unplanned. Table 1.1 provides
some examples of both planned and unplanned circumstances that might lead to a person requiring care, as well
as some circumstances that might be either.
With both planned and unplanned care, there may be various implications—both positive and negative—that
affects both the carer and the person being cared for. These might include:
• Financial difficulties
• Inability to work full time
• Time demands
• Physical and emotional exhaustion
• Pressure on resource-management skills
• Development of positive relationships
• Limited time for socialising
• Increased self-confidence.
Learning Activities
1. What is the difference between a paid carer and a voluntary carer?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
2. Read the following two case studies, and then answer the question on the next page.
Implications of unplanned care
I’m trying my hardest to continue to take care of everyone. When I was 11 or so my mother was diagnosed with breast
cancer and she fought with it for three years and various operations until the cancer took to her entire body and she
died. Now five years later my father has got aggressive cancer too, which affects us financially as well as in every other
possible way.
My wider family are not very nice people and so I am striving to do my best around what I have been given and hope
that that there is something more in life than cancer.
I have been taking care of my family for the last five years and despite the illness affecting my father and sister’s
mental states I am trying my hardest to continue take care of everyone as well as hopefully get a chance to live a happy
life as a young adult and go to university.
Young carer, aged 18 years
Source: Young Carers website, http://www.youngcarersnsw.asn.au/StoryView.aspx?PageID=933
Implications of planned care
Dear Principal,
I would like to take a moment to mention to you a teacher who has been a wonderful inspiration and mentor to my
daughter Amber. Her name is Mrs Smith and she teaches Amber CAFS. Amber wants to do nursing as a career but, as
you know, she is not abundantly endowed with academic ability. Mrs Smith has encouraged Amber to study beyond
her normal limits, and has helped her with resources, time and herself.
When Amber’s friends were leading her astray by pressuring her to leave home and school, this teacher encouraged
Amber. She talked to her about the positive outcomes of continuing to stay at school and at home. Mrs Smith helped
Amber to hope when there was very little around, and to have some stability when her world was very shaky.
As a result, Amber has stayed at home and at school. She has seen the error of her ways and those of her friends. We
have seen the results of her staying at school, attending all her classes and not having particular friends around her.
I am hopeful.
At a time when everything Mum says is wrong, it is wonderful to see support from someone our children still look up
to—their teacher. Thank you for employing Mrs Smith, and thanks to Mrs Smith for being the sort of person she is—
one who can see a glimmer of something in a rebellious teenager and build on that and make it grow. My thanks as a
Mum to you all in your very difficult jobs as a high school teachers.
Sincerely,
Mrs Jones.
In table format as shown below, identify the variety of circumstances that might lead to an individual requiring
care.
Circumstances that might lead to planned care
Circumstances that might lead to unplanned care
3. Compare the implications of planned versus unplanned care for the following pairs of circumstances.
a. Planned pregnancy versus unplanned pregnancy
Implications: __________________________________________________________________________________
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b. Live (planned) kidney donor versus emergency (unplanned) kidney transplant
Implications: __________________________________________________________________________________
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c. Daily child care for a toddler (planned) versus finding child care for a sick child who cannot attend
school for the day (unplanned)
Implications: __________________________________________________________________________________
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d. Sole parent of a 17-year-old taking a two-week holiday (planned) versus sole parent of a 17-yearold leaving town to look after sick parents for two weeks (unplanned)
Implications: __________________________________________________________________________________
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4. Using two examples from Question 2, assess the implications that each set of circumstance would have
on the wellbeing of the person requiring care.
Implications: __________________________________________________________________________________
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5. Explain why caring for someone under planned circumstances be easier than caring for someone under
unplanned circumstances?
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6. Why are male carers just as significant in caring relationships as women?
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7. Identify what the acronym AID stands for with regard to why people might require care
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8. Outline some of the circumstances that might lead to a person requiring care
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9. Provide examples of planned and unplanned care
Planned:_____________________________________________________________________________________
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Unplanned:___________________________________________________________________________________
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10. Suggest some situations where a male carer might be more appropriate then a female carer
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11. Explain the importance of gender in the carer relationship
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HSC Question
2003
18 (c)
Assess factors influencing the development of positive relationships between carers and those in
their care, in both paid and voluntary circumstances
15 marks
Part 2 –
Managing
Parenting
&
Caring
Responsibilities
Managing Parenting and Caring Responsibilities
Preparations for becoming a parent or carer
Being a parent involves being responsible for the care of a child or children. Being a carer involves being
responsible for the care of another person or other people. Being a parent or carer requires commitment and
dedication, as it affects day-to-day activities. The effects that parenting or caring will have on a person or couple
will depend partly on whether the situation was planned or unplanned. Under planned circumstances, the people
involved may have more time to prepare for the role that they are about to take on. This can make it easier for
them to maintain their wellbeing as they try to manage their parenting and caring responsibilities.
Preparing to be a parent or carer can involve many changes to a person’s life; these may include physical, social,
emotional and economic considerations. Tables 2.1 to 2.4 show some of the considerations involved in preparing
to become a parent or carer.
Physical—prenatal considerations for parent and child health
Biological parenting
The physical preparations that may be required for biological parents include:
• Optimise physical health before conception and during pregnancy.
• Maintain a healthy, balanced diet and develop an awareness of special needs during pregnancy, such as the
avoidance of foods associated with listeria bacteria.
• Cease use of alcohol and other drugs, including tobacco and caffeine.
• Participate in regular exercise during pregnancy, avoiding impact sports and activities.
• Attend regular appointments with a general practitioner or obstetrician to monitor the baby’s growth and
development, and undertake ultrasounds and other tests if required.
• Attend prenatal courses to learn about physical and emotional needs during pregnancy and birth.
Social parenting
The physical preparations for social parenting are often similar to the first four points listed for biological
parenting.
Caring
The physical preparations that may be required for caring include:
• Participate in regular exercise to maintain optimum physical and emotional health.
• Maintain a healthy, balanced diet to ensure physical needs are met as caring can place a strain on wellbeing.
• Practise safe-lifting skills to assist with the mobility needs of the dependent.
• Practise how to give an injection or use an oxygen mask.
• Investigate and install physical aids in the home, such as railings and ramps.
Social changes parents and carers may have to make
Biological parenting
The social preparations that may be required for biological parents include:
• Attend prenatal classes to meet others in the same situation – sometimes these friendships continue after
delivery and may begin lifelong connections between families.
• Investigate child-friendly social activities in the local area.
• Locate parenting groups in the community.
• Organise baby-free time with partner.
• Arrange childcare if required.
Social parenting
The social preparations that may be required for social parenting include:
• Develop relationships with other parents, such as through children’s sport and recreation activities.
• Investigate relevant support groups; for example, those for families adopting children from overseas, infertile
couples contemplating surrogacy or foster carers.
• Locate parenting groups in the local community.
• Arrange child-free time with partner to develop and maintain own relationship – this is especially important for
stepfamilies.
Caring
The social preparations that may be required for caring situations include:
• Enlist the support of family members.
• Identify necessary support groups, such as carers of people with dementia or cancer.
• Be aware of support groups that cater for cultural and language difference, such as Handital.
• Investigate respite care to arrange some free time from carer responsibilities.
• Let friends know about the situation.
Emotional preparations for the new relationships
Biological parenting
The emotional preparations that may be required for biological parenting include:
• Discuss moods and emotions with partner, family and friends.
• Recognise that partner may be jealous of the attention being received by the mother.
• Prepare other family members for the new family member.
• Investigate and practise relaxation techniques.
Social parenting
The emotional preparations that may be required for social parenting include:
• Discuss concerns, fears and thoughts with partner and other parents to identify with others and gain insight into
possible actions and solutions.
• Recognise if help is required from a formal or informal support network.
Caring
The emotional preparations that may be required for caring include:
• Enlist in a support group to deal with varied emotions.
• Make friends with others in a similar situation – often carers lose touch with family and friends.
• Grieve for changed personal situation but be aware of potential for depression and sources of help.
• Understand that conflicting emotions may be experienced when the person requires residential care.
Economic
Biological parenting
The economic preparations that may be required for biological parenting include:
• Plan for financial management; prepare and stick to a budget.
• Analyse and adjust finances, such as mortgage payments.
• Investigate maternity and paternity leave provisions in the workplace.
• Investigate parenting payments from Centrelink.
• Ask people in support groups for strategies.
Social parenting
The economic preparations for social parenting are often similar to those of biological parenting.
Caring
The economic preparations that may be required for caring include:
• Plan for financial management; prepare and stick to a budget.
• Analyse and adjust finances, such as mortgage payments.
• Investigate leave provisions in the workplace.
• Investigate caring payments from Centrelink.
• Ask people in support groups for strategies.
Learning Activities
Visit the centrelink website www.centrelink.gov.au/ to answer the following questions:
1 How much is paid for the Baby Bonus?
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2 What other payments may be made to parents?
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3 Suggest how these payments may be utilised by new parents during the initial stages of parenthood.
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4 How much are foster parents paid? Outline the needs that may be satisfied by this funding.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
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5 What is the value of the Carer Payments and Carer Allowance? What criteria are used to assess the dependent?
Explain how this may impact on a caring relationship.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
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6 Define the term means testing. Give an example of a payment that is means tested. Outline the significance of
means testing for families.
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7 Compare and contrast the preparations for parenting made by a biological parent and a carer.
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8 Examine the contents of a parenting magazine. Identify the information that could assist parents with:
a physical preparation
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b social preparation
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c emotional preparation
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d economic preparation.
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Discuss the current and future areas of development (including physical, social, emotional and economic
considerations) that would be necessary in the following parenting and caring scenarios.
Scenario A
A sole parent who is the primary carer of two teenage children has recently been diagnosed with a degenerative
disease (e.g. multiple sclerosis).
Scenario B
An elderly couple suddenly find themselves caring for their three grandchildren whose parents have died in a car
accident.
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2. Outline the current areas of development that would be necessary as a consequence of an unplanned teenage
pregnancy where both parents want to complete their HSC. Examine this scenario from both the male and the
female perspectives.
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3. Read the article, ‘Wisdom of the ages’, and complete the following activities.
a. Describe Antonia Kidman’s thoughts on motherhood, and identify the various preparations
(physical, social, emotional and economic) she highlights for becoming a parent
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
b.
Construct a continuum that demonstrates how parenting has changed (physically, socially,
emotionally and economically) from the 1950s through the 1970s to today. (An example has been
provided for you in Figure 2.1.)
Factors influencing resource management in the caring
relationship
Resources are all the things that we use to achieve a task. Resource management describes the work of
managing and controlling how resources can best be used to meet our needs. It focuses on how we make
decisions, solve problems and use resources to successfully achieve balance in our life. A number of factors can
influence resource management in the caring relationship, including the dependant(s) affected by the caring
relationship, the resources available and the access those involved have to these resources. People who manage
their resources effectively use a variety of strategies to do this.
The values and goals of parents and carers within relationships, such as families, provide the incentive for
management and will therefore impact on decision-making. In particular, parents and carers will direct and
influence decisions made about the use of human and non-human, economic and non-economic, and formal and
informal resources.
Another dominant factor affecting how resources are used in the caring relationship is the dependent. The age,
skills, capabilities and special needs of the dependent will influence both the resources identified by the parent or
carer and the strategies selected to effectively manage their parenting or caring role.
Dependants affected by the caring relationship
A dependant is a person who relies on another person for support to help meet their needs, such as a child who
relies on their parents, or a person with a disability who relies on a carer. The age, skills, capabilities and special
needs of the dependant all play a significant role in how the parenting or caring situation is managed. In addition,
when a new dependant is introduced into a parenting or caring relationship, it affects all those who are currently
involved in the caring relationship. With any additional dependant there will be changes in roles in order to
manage the situation effectively so that all involved can successfully adjust to the new circumstances.
Age
The age and maturity of the dependent will determine the level of care required. For example, a parent may leave
a ten year old at home for twenty minutes watching television, but it would not be wise to leave them while they
are cooking! If a child has a disability or illness, it may not be possible to leave them on their own at any time.
Similarly, an aged person may not require care just because they are elderly. They still may be able to live
independently, perhaps with the support of home care workers who assist with home maintenance and shopping.
A dependant’s age affects their level of development, so the older the dependant, the more likely they are to be
self-sufficient and independent in some ways. Older dependants may be able to assist with household tasks such
as cooking, cleaning and washing. They may also be able to care for and meet the needs of other dependants
within the caring relationship, such as a younger sibling or a grandparent.
A younger dependant might require more attention to meet their needs, so the parent or carer may need to give
up more of their time and energy to care for them. This can make it difficult for the parent or carer to manage
resources effectively, as they may find it a challenge to balance their personal life with their caring
responsibilities.
Skills/Capabilities
A dependant’s skills and capabilities will influence how effectively they are able to manage the resources available
to them. For example, an adult may have the skills to able to cook for themselves, but due to an injury they may
temporarily lack the capability to prepare their own meals. The same might apply to other everyday tasks, such as
dressing and showering. Consequently this adult will be temporarily dependent on someone else to help meet
their basic needs. Similarly, a toddler may have developed the skills to be able to dress themselves, but may lack
the capability to do so effectively. As a result, the toddler may put clothes on back-to-front, leading to the parent
or carer spending time redressing the toddler when they could have been completing other tasks.
When the dependent has developed a variety of personal skills and capabilities, it will be possible for him or her
to contribute to the relationship and management of resources. For instance, children aged two or three have the
motor skills to pick up many toys and put them away, which can assist a tired parent; or a seventeen year old who
has a driving licence is able to transport other family members when necessary.
Alternatively, skills may need to be interchanged or substituted. Consider the example of an aged couple who
have been married for over fifty years. The wife has had a stroke and so needs to be admitted to a nursing home.
The husband has few cooking and cleaning skills. It is therefore necessary to arrange home care assistance so that
the husband can continue to live independently in his own home.
Special needs
Caring for a person who has special needs can be physically and emotionally draining. Special needs can be
permanent (such as in the case of a person who has autism) or temporary (such as in the case of a person who
has a broken leg). The type of special needs that the dependant has will affect the level of responsibility of the
parent or carer, and this in turn will influence the way in which the parent or carer manages their resources. For
example, the parent or carer may need to source additional support—such as counselling, rehabilitation,
medication, speech therapy or physical therapy—in order to manage the situation effectively. This may involve
spending more time, energy and/or money in order to meet the special needs of the dependant.
Special needs can refer to those of the dependent or the carer and can affect what services are needed either
temporarily or permanently. For example, a child with special needs will require more time, energy and finances
from their carer. Modifications may be needed for housing in the form of ramps and railings, or the family car
may require space for a wheelchair to be carried.
Sometimes, a parent may have special needs and the young person is required to act as carer. In this case, the
young person may require support from the community transport network or practical advice from the Young
Carers Project of Carers NSW. Additionally, services such as Centrelink payments may be required to supplement
the family income.
Table 2.5 lists some strategies that could be used to effectively manage resources, depending on the
characteristics (age, skills, capabilities, special needs) of the dependant.
Resources
The resources that require management and prioritisation most often are time, energy, finance and housing.
Access to services such as support networks is vital. Sometimes, negotiating and using these resources can lead to
difficulties in the caring relationship and conflict can arise. Management strategies are necessary for instances
such as these.
Time
All activities involved in parenting and caring require time. Time is required for:
 The personal care of the dependents, such as feeding and washing
 Developing close relationships
 Communicating and sharing activities
 Personal pursuits, such as transporting children to sports training or music lessons.
How a parent or carer manages their time will depend on the demands of the parenting and caring relationship,
and will in turn affect their ability to effectively manage their other resources.
When caring for others, a person’s time becomes very precious, as there are many things that need to be done
throughout the day. For example, a carer who provides 24- hour care to a dependant may, as a result, have little
time available to spend with other family or friends. An example of how time management can affect the
management of other resources might be the case of a parent who works five days a week and, as a result, has
little time to care for their young children, so may need to spend money on formal child care.
Strategies that can assist parents and carers to manage their time effectively include:
• Allocating household jobs to family members, e.g. Taking out the rubbish, hanging out the washing
• Preparing and freezing meals on the weekend for use during the week when time is limited
• Using time-saving technology, e.g. Dishwasher, microwave, online grocery ordering
• Accessing formal support networks, e.g. Child care or respite care, to free up time to meet other
responsibilities or just to have time out from caring duties.
Energy
Parenting and caring are demanding tasks that require human energy. Examples include:
• Feeding, changing and playing with infants
• Transporting adolescents to leisure activities
• Shopping and providing house maintenance for an aged parent
• Feeding and lifting a child, such as one with a cerebral palsy
At times, the ongoing nature of parenting a number of young children or caring for an aged, ill or disabled person
may lead to the carer feeling under constant pressure. This can contribute to significant physical, mental or
emotional health issues, such as depression. In such cases, intervention from specialised personnel or services
might be necessary.
Energy demands are high when a person becomes a parent or a carer, and resource-management skills can suffer
as a result of the physically exhausting energy requirements of the caring relationship. Carers need to look after
not only themselves but also those in their care.
For example, a sole parent might find themselves physically exhausted by trying to meet the needs of their
dependant(s), including providing transport, cooking, cleaning, doing the washing and ironing and doing the
gardening and household maintenance. In some cases this is further compounded by the sole parent also having
to care for their elderly mother and father.
A person in this situation may feel overwhelmed by the amount of work required to meet the needs of those in
their care. Subsequently their energy levels may rapidly be depleted, unless they employ successful strategies to
help them to effectively manage this resource.
Strategies that can assist parents and carers to manage their energy effectively include:
• getting enough rest whenever possible, e.g. when the dependant is sleeping
• accessing support that allows the carer to rest or do other tasks, e.g. respite care, day care or home care
• organising a menu for the whole week so they only need to go shopping once.
Finance
Finance is required to access many other resources required for parenting and caring, such as material goods and
formal support networks. The circumstances of the dependent relationship will determine the demands on
finances. Examples include childcare, respite care, educational services and goods, modified equipment for the
home and health care.
If a parent or carer is struggling financially, this can restrict them in their efforts to effectively manage their
resources. For example, a carer may not be able to afford to make the kind of physical modifications to the house
(such as installing ramps) that would ease some of their own physical burden.
Having a good financial base can allow parents and carers to more easily maintain a balance between the other
resources that influence the caring relationship. For example, in a two-parent family where both parents work full
time, there may be less time available to care for children or elderly family members, but there may be more
money to spend on employing a carer or accessing childcare services. The government provides financial
assistance to parents and carers to help them to meet the needs of their dependants, including family tax
benefits, childcare benefits and carer payments. There are also other types of support that help to ease the
financial burden on parents and carers, such as maternity leave allowances, healthcare cards, the Pharmaceutical
Benefits Scheme and rent assistance.
Strategies that can assist parents and carers to manage their finances effectively include:
• Seeking a financial advisor to discuss financial options or to help design a budget
• Accessing government payments or benefits
• Reducing mortgage repayments if possible.
Housing
Suitable housing is required to meet the needs of the dependent and carer. The family home may require
modification. Other housing choices may include a hostel or nursing home.
As a resource, housing can either add to or detract from how parents or carers are able to effectively manage
their resources within the caring relationship. For example, a house might become too big for a family once the
older children have moved out, so the parents might choose to downsize so that they can spend less time looking
after the house and garden and more time doing other things. Alternatively, a house might become too small to
meet the needs of a family as more children are born or other dependants move in. Or an elderly dependant
might want to stay in their house rather than move to an aged-care facility, which might mean that costly
modifications need to be made to the house to meet their changing needs, such as installing ramps and handrails.
When considering housing, parents and carers need to consider their financial status, the size of the house and
the location of the house (for example, whether it is near extended family and friends, schools, transport and
parks) to ensure that it meets the needs of all members of the household, including the dependants.
Strategies that can assist parents and carers to manage their housing situation effectively include:
• Accessing community groups, e.g. Rotary, to contribute to any housing modifications required (either
financially or with a working bee)
• Accessing government rental assistance to rent a house more suitable to the needs of the carer and the
dependants
• Living with relatives to reduce or share living expenses.
Access to Services
Being able to access appropriate services allows parents and carers to better manage their resources effectively.
Having the knowledge and skills to access the services they need can greatly enhance their quality of life.
Services that can help parents and carers to manage their responsibilities include:
• Community transport
• Home delivery of groceries
• Family day care
• Immunisation programs
• Health seminars (including mental health first aid)
• Youth recreation services (such as bike tracks, skate parks and aquatic centres)
• Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander agencies and networks.
• Educational – schools and preschools
• Health – doctors, hospitals, early childhood centres, respite care
• Homecare assistance – meals on wheels, home care
• Recreational – libraries, sporting clubs and dance groups, senior citizens’ centres
• Financial – Centrelink
• Housing – department of housing, nursing homes and hostels, Ronald Mcdonald houses
• Transport – community transport, maxi-taxis
• Spiritual – church, synagogues, mosques.
An example of how accessing a service could help a carer to manage their resources effectively might be a young
person caring for their chronically ill parent. The young person might consider taking an after-school job to help
support the family financially, because their ill parent cannot earn an income. But as the young person is the
parent’s primary carer, it could be difficult for them to take time away from home to work. The young person
might ask other family members or neighbours to check in on their parent while they are at work. This would help
them to earn an income without worrying about their parent while they are at work.
Sometimes there are barriers to accessing certain services, which might make it difficult for a parent or carer to
manage their resources effectively. These barriers might include some of the examples shown in Table 2.6.
Access to services significantly affects the way people are able to manage their resources within the parenting or
caring relationship. The government provides a number of services to people who require assistance, and social
workers can help parents and carers to access the services they might need. A social worker is someone whose
job it is to help create awareness and empower people to access services within the community, by providing
them with information and support. This allows people to participate more fully in society.
Other strategies that can assist parents and carers to access services effectively include:
• Making use of free services, such as free health screening services
• Applying for government financial support, e.g. Childcare rebates
• Consulting a financial advisor to help prepare a budget for the household
• Applying for a loan to make modifications to the house, so that the dependant can become more
independent, allowing the carer more time for other tasks
• Car pooling, e.g. Alternating days with other parents to drive children to school, taking turns with other
carers to drive dependants to appointments.
Learning Activities
1. What are some of the physical preparations that might need to be made for becoming a parent or carer?
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2. What are four examples of changes that a parent or carer would need to make with regard to their social
life when taking on a caring role?
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3. What type of emotional preparations could be made by a parent or carer to better equip themselves for
their future caring responsibilities?
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4. What are some current economic changes that would have to be considered by a parent or carer when
taking on a caring role?
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5. How might a dependant’s skill level affect the parenting or caring relationship?
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6. Why would the age of a dependant influence the way they would be parented or cared for?
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7. What are the four types of resources that must be effectively managed by a parent or carer?
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8. What are some strategies that parents or carers could use to effectively manage their financial resources?
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9. How might a lack of time or energy be a barrier to a parent or carer accessing services and thus more
effectively managing their resources?
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10. How does access to services affect a person’s ability to effectively manage within a caring relationship?
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