Introduction to
Motor Development
Human behavior is not
compartmentalized; there
is a complex system of
constant, reciprocal exchanges
among an individual’s cognitive,
affective, motor, and physical
being
Motor Development

Development--identifiable, progressive flow
of changes which are psychological, social,
emotional, physical
– Developmental
psychology
– Ontogeny--long term change over the lifespan
– Differentiation--becoming something different

Learning--acquisition of knowledge, experience
and its application; change in behavior; generation
of neural pathways or programs
– Experimental
psychology
– Short term change
Motor Development (continued)

Evolution--specific change of species according to the
environment (generation to generation)
– Phylogeny
Maturation--physical and mental growth and
development defined in terms of a definitive time
period
 Growth--change over time, aging process, change to
mature state, acquisition of skills, knowledge,
coordination

– Change
in physical size
Introduction to Motor Development
All five of these previous definitions tend to
overlap; often maturation, growth, and
development don't include environmental factors
 What is Motor Development?

–Clark
& Whitall (1989)-Describes the lawful changes in
motor skill behavior across the lifespan
Consider the product--end result; task oriented
approach
Consider the process--what occurs during
the movement; process oriented approach
Consider factors affecting changes
Past, present, future

Motor Development
• Working definition for this text
– Motor development is the study of
changes in human motor behavior
over the lifespan, the processes that
underlie these changes, and the
factors that affect them
Defining Motor Development
• Identify similarities and differences
between motor development and the
following phenomena.
– Motor learning
– Motor control
– Physical growth and maturation
Characteristics of Motor
Development
• Involves change in movement
behavior
• Is sequential, age-related, continuous
• Depends on underlying processes
Related Areas of Study
• Motor learning: relatively permanent
gains in motor skill capability
associated with practice or experience
• Motor control: the neural, physical,
and behavioral aspects of movement
Brief History of Motor Development

Precursor Period (late 1700's-1928)
– Descriptive
observation
Darwin (1787)
Tiedemann (1877)

Maturational Period (1928-1946)
– Biological
processes--description of processes, and
product
Gesell (1928)
McGraw (1935)-Johnny & Jimmy
Bayley (1936)-Motor Development Scale

Normative/Descriptive Period (1946-70)
– Anthropometric
Measurement
– Development of Standardized Norms
– Product Oriented
Glassow, Espenschade, Rarick

Process Oriented Period (1970-present)
– Concern
for processes underlying development
– Perception, information processing
– Coordination, dynamical systems, lifespan
perspective
– Film analysis, biomechanics
Research Designs in Motor Development

Cross Sectional Design--study different age groups at
the same time period with the same measure
– Easy,
efficient, quick results
– Assumes age causes changes, rather than behavior

Longitudinal Design--study one group of subjects at
different ages and different times of measurement
– Time
consuming, costly
– Subject loss over time; test sensitive
– Examines change in behavior

Mixed Longitudinal Design (time lag or sequential)
– Combines

two designs to utilize the advantages of both
Problems with designs
– Chronological
age (CD & LD)
– Cohort Effects--experiences one brings to testing based
upon time raised (CD)
– Time of Measurement (LD)

Pros and cons of designs
Research Designs-Pros
Cross-sectional
Administratively efficient
Quickly completed
Age differences can be observed
Longitudinal
Change can be observed across ages
Sequential-Cohort Accounts for generational (cohort)
effect
Research Designs-Cons
Cross-sectional
Cannot observe change
Cannot determine accurate age of groups
Age and cohort are confounded
Longitudinal
Administratively inefficient
Age and time of measurements are
confounded
Subjects may be influenced by repeated testing
Subjects may drop out
SequentialCohort
Administratively inefficient
Costly
Subjects may drop out
Difficult to analyze statistically
Design Comparisons

Bloom's Taxonomy (1956)--Three Interactive
Domains (Fig. 1-2, p. 6)
– Cognitive
Domain--one's intellect (Piaget)
– Affective Domain--social & emotional
– Motor Domain--human movement, our focus
– Payne & Isaacs added the physical domain

Why study motor development?
•
Study of normal development allows one to
identify problems or delayed development
•
Improve motor performance
•
Curriculum development; developmentally
appropriate activities
Common Motor Development
Terms

Direction of Development
– Cephalocaudal--from
head to tail;growth
Head size in infants
Walking
– Proximodistal--from close to body to farther out;
prenatal growth
Reaching and grasping

Differentiation & Integration
– Differentiation
refers to the process of moving from
gross control of movements to fine precise control of
movements
– Integration refers to the ability of the system to
function together as a unit; coordination

Types of Movements
– Gross
movements--controlled by large muscles (walking,
hopping, jumping)
– Fine movements--controlled by small muscles (typing,
writing, drawing, sewing)
– Skill like throwing involves both
– Fine motor ability develops with maturation

Terms for Age Periods throughout Lifespan
– Divisions
are not always accurate because they
are based on CHRONOLOGICAL age
Chronological Age--length of time from birth
 Developmental Age--takes into account rate of
maturation
 Stages or Phases of Development--Do they exist?

– Roberton--in
order to be a it stage" then there must be
some hierarchial, qualitative change in human movement
Unique from all other stages
Possess common characteristics in one stage
Invariant order in all individuals
– Often used for ease of description
Other Considerations

Why consider a lifespan perspective?
– Number
of people over the age of 65 continues to
increase
– Allows us to study both progressive and regressive
phases of development
Intrinsic and extrinsic factors

Dynamical Systems Perspective
– Movement
is a product of the whole system which
is constantly interacting and changing
– Walking
Neural Perspective vs. Dynamical Systems
Current Trends
• Since 1900, US population
statistics show
– 3 times more people over
age 65
– 8 times more people age
65-74
– 16 times more people
age 75-84
– 31 times more people
over 85
• Lifespan perspective
– Offers the
opportunity to
examine a broader
ranges of change
processes
Newell’s Model of Constraints
Constraints
• Limit or discourage certain movements
• Permit or encourage other movements
• “Shape” movement
Individual Constraints
• Inside the body (internal)
• Structural constraints: related to the body’s
structure
– Height
– Muscle mass
• Functional constraints: related to behavioral
function
– Attention
– Motivation
Environmental Constraints
• Outside the body: properties of the world
around us
• Global, not task specific
• Physical
– Gravity
– Surfaces
• Sociocultural
– Gender roles
– Cultural norms
Task Constraints
• External to the body
• Related specifically to tasks or skills
– Goal of task
– Rules guiding task performance
– Equipment