Introduction to Psychology
Human Development
Developmental Psychology
• The focus of developmental psychology is on
how humans develop and change over time
– Change can occur across the life span of the
person
• Cradle to grave developmental psychology
– Assumes that change is inevitable
– Change can be continuous or discontinuous
Core Developmental Issues
• Delineate the interacting forces of nature and
nurture
– Maturation: Refers to biologically determined
changes that follow an orderly sequence
• Determine the importance of early experiences
– The notion of “critical periods”
• Assess whether change is continuous or in
qualitative stages
Critical Periods
• Critical period concept suggests that the brain is set to
acquire a function during a limited period of time.
• If key experiences do not occur during a critical time
period, the function may not develop or may not be
fully developed
– The case of Genie: a girl who was isolated until the age of
13. Although Genie made some gains in language, her
syntax never approached normal levels. The case of Genie
supports a critical period for language acquisition (yet some
point to her gains later in life)
– Measles can cause mental retardation if contracted during
certain fetal periods
Developmental Methodology
• Cross-sectional method compares groups of different
ages at the same time
– Useful for assessing age differences
– Not useful for examining age changes
• The problem is that each age group (cohort) has different life
experiences
• Longitudinal method compares same group at
multiple time points
• Sequential studies examine different age groups at
multiple time points (reduce cohort effects)
Physical Development
• Prenatal period has 3 phases:
– Germinal period (1st 2 weeks after
conception)
– Embryonic period: 3rd to 8th weeks of
gestation
– Fetal period: from 9 weeks to birth
Teratogens
• During the embryonic period, the developing
fetus is susceptible to toxins
• Teratogens are environmental agents that harm
the fetus (viruses, chemicals)
– Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: If the mother consumes
alcohol during pregnancy, the fetus is exposed to
the alcohol, which can lead to abnormal physical
development and to learning disabilities
– Crack Cocaine: Fetal exposure to cocaine alters
motor and emotional development
Infant Reflexes
• Reflexes are innate motor responses elicited
by critical stimuli
– Reflexes are adaptive
• Examples of infant reflexes:
– Rooting reflex: A touch on the cheek induces the
infant to move its mouth toward the source of the
touch (helps guide feeding)
– Sucking reflex: Tactile stimulation of the mouth
produces rhythmic sucking
Motor Development
(Figure adapted from Frankenburg & Dodds, 1967).
Emotional Development
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•
1)
2)
3)
Temperament
Attachment:
Secure
Anxious-ambivalent
Avoidant
Cognitive Development
• Piaget’s interest was epistemology: the branch
of philosophy concerned with the acquisition of
knowledge
– Piaget argued that children have schemas which are
organized patterns of thought or behavior
– Cognitive development for Piaget involved the
modification of intellectual schemas as the child
seeks to understand its world
Assimilation and Accommodation
• The cognitive schemas developed by children must be
able to handle new information and situations
• Piaget proposed 2 intellectual processes:
– Assimilation: Involves interpreting new information in light
of an old schema
• All 4-legged animals are viewed as a “dog”
– Accommodation: Process by which old schemas are
modified to fit new situations
• A horse is not a “dog”
Piaget’s Stage Theory
1)
2)
3)
4)
Senorimotor period (birth to 2 years)
Preoperational period (2 to 7 years)
Concrete operational period (7 to 11)
Formal operational period (11 to adult)
- Centration, irreversibility, animism
Issues in Cognitive Development
• Object permanence refers to the realization by a child
that an object continues to exist even if it cannot be
seen
• Egocentrism refers to a cognitive view in which a
child understands the world to have only their view
(has great difficulty in understanding the views of
others)
• Conservation: Understanding that the basic properties
of an object are constant even if the object changes
shape
Conservation Tasks
Personality Development
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
Trust vs. Mistrust (1st year)
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (2 - 3)
Initiative vs. Guilt (4 - 6)
Industry vs. Inferiority (6 - puberty)
Identity vs. Confusion (Adolescence)
Intimacy vs. Isolation (Early adulthood)
Generativity vs. Self-Absorbtion (Middle adult)
Integrity vs. Despair (Late adulthood)