Chapter 3
Perspectives on
Effective Leadership Behavior
© 2006 Prentice Hall
Leadership in Organizations
3-1
Ohio State Leadership Studies
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Leadership Behaviors
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Consideration – leader’s concern for people and
interpersonal relationships
Initiating structure – leader’s concern for accomplishing
the task
© 2006 Prentice Hall
Leadership in Organizations
3-2
Ohio State Leadership Studies
Research Results
 Relation between consideration and turnover rate
© 2006 Prentice Hall
Leadership in Organizations
3-3
Ohio State Leadership Studies
Research Results
 Relation between initiating structure and turnover rate
© 2006 Prentice Hall
Leadership in Organizations
3-4
Michigan Leadership Studies
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Leadership Behaviors
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Task-oriented behaviors
Relations-oriented behaviors
Participative leadership
Peer Leadership
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Leadership in Organizations
3-5
Limitations of Survey Research
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Bias in Behavior Description Questionnaires
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Ambiguous items
Response bias
Aggregation of items
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Experiments
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Laboratory Experiments
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Low external validity (generalizability)
High internal validity
Inconsistent findings
Field Experiments
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© 2006 Prentice Hall
Difficult to conduct
High external validity
Low internal validity
Positive results for relations-oriented behaviors; mixed
and inconsistent results for task-oriented behaviors
Leadership in Organizations
3-7
The “High-High” Leader
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The Managerial Grid & PM Leadership Theory
Additive versus Multiplicative Model
Limited Support for a Universal Model
Need to incorporate situational variables
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Leadership in Organizations
3-8
Concern for People
Blake and Mouton Managerial Grid
9 (1,9)
8 Country Club
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(9,9)
Team Management
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Middle-of-the-Road
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(5,5)
3
2 Impoverished
1
Authority-Compliance
(9,1)
(1,1)
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Concern for Production
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Leadership in Organizations
3-9
Leadership Behavior Taxonomies
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Sources of Diversity Among Taxonomies
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No absolute set of correct behaviors
Levels of abstraction
Various methods used to develop taxonomies
Limitations of Factor-Based Taxonomies
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Leadership in Organizations
3-10
Leadership Behavior Taxonomies
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Three-Dimensional Taxonomy
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© 2006 Prentice Hall
Task-Oriented Behaviors
Relations-Oriented Behaviors
Change-Oriented Behaviors
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3-11
Task-Oriented Behaviors
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Organize work activities to improve efficiency
Plan short-term operation
Assign work to groups or individuals
Clarify what results are expected for a task
Set specific goals and standards for task
performance
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Leadership in Organizations
3-12
Task-Oriented Behaviors
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Explain rules, policies, and stand operating
procedures
Direct and coordinate work activities
Monitor operations and performance
Resolve immediate problems that would disrupt
the work
© 2006 Prentice Hall
Leadership in Organizations
3-13
Relations-Oriented Behaviors
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Provide support and encouragement to someone
with a difficult task
Express confidence that a person or group can
perform a difficult task
Socialize with people to build relationships.
Recognize contributions and accomplishments
Provide coaching and mentoring when appropriate
© 2006 Prentice Hall
Leadership in Organizations
3-14
Relations-Oriented Behaviors
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Consult with people on decisions affecting them
Allow people to determine the best way to do a
task
Keep people informed about actions affecting
them
Help resolve conflicts in a constructive way
Use symbols, ceremonies, rituals, and stories to
build team identity
Recruit competent new members for the team or
organization
© 2006 Prentice Hall
Leadership in Organizations
3-15
Change-Oriented Behaviors
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Monitor the external environment to detect threats and
opportunities
Interpret events to explain the urgent need for change
Study competitors and outsiders to get ideas for
improvements
Envision exciting new possibilities for the organization
Encourage people to view problems or opportunities in a
different way
Develop innovative new strategies linked to core
competencies
© 2006 Prentice Hall
Leadership in Organizations
3-16
Change-Oriented Behaviors
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Encourage and facilitate innovation and entrepreneurship
in the organization
Encourage and facilitate collective learning in the team or
organization
Experiment with new approaches for achieving objectives
Make symbolic changes that are consistent with a new
vision or strategy
Encourage and facilitate efforts to implement major change
Announce and celebrate progress in implementing change
Influence outsiders to support change and negotiate
agreements with them
© 2006 Prentice Hall
Leadership in Organizations
3-17
Specific Task Behaviors
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Action Planning
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
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Identify necessary action steps
Identify the optimal sequence of action steps
Estimate the time needed to carry out each action
step
Determine starting times and deadlines for each
action step
Estimate the cost of each action step
Determine who will be accountable for each action
step
Develop procedures for monitoring progress
Leadership in Organizations
3-18
Specific Task Behaviors (cont.)
Clarifying Roles and Objectives
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Defining Job Responsibilities
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Assigning Work
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Explain the important job responsibilities
Clarify the person’s scope of authority
Explain how the job relates to the mission of the unit
Explain important policies, rules, and requirements
Clearly explain the assignment
Explain the reasons for an assignment
Clarify priorities and deadlines
Check for comprehension
Setting Performance Goals
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© 2006 Prentice Hall
Set goals for relevant aspects of performance
Set goals that are clear and specific
Set goals that are challenging but realistic
Set a target date for attainment of each goal
Leadership in Organizations
3-19
Specific Relations Behaviors
Guidelines for Supporting
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Identify and measure key performance indicators
Monitor key process variables as well as
outcomes
Measure progress against plans and budgets
Develop independent sources of information about
performance
Observe operations directly when it is feasible
Ask specific questions about the work
Encourage reporting of problems and mistakes
Conduct periodic progress review meetings
© 2006 Prentice Hall
Leadership in Organizations
3-20
Specific Relations Behaviors
Guidelines for Coaching
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Help the person analyze his or her performance by asking
questions or suggesting aspects to examine more closely
Provide constructive feedback about effective and
ineffective behaviors exhibited by the person
Suggest specific things that could help to improve the
person’s performance
Demonstrate a better way to do a complex task or
procedure
Express confidence the person can learn a difficult task or
procedure
Provide opportunities to practice difficult procedures before
they are used in the work
Help the person learn how to solve a problem rather than
just providing the answer
© 2006 Prentice Hall
Leadership in Organizations
3-21
Specific Relations Behaviors
Guidelines for Mentoring
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Help the person identify relevant strengths and
weaknesses
Help the person find ways to acquire necessary
skills and knowledge.
Encourage attendance at relevant training courses
Provide opportunities to learn from experience
Provide helpful career advice
Promote the person’s reputation
Serve as a role model (demonstrate appropriate
behavior)
© 2006 Prentice Hall
Leadership in Organizations
3-22
Specific Relations Behaviors
Guidelines for Recognizing
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Recognize a variety of contributions and
achievements
Actively search for contributions to recognize
Recognize specific contributions and
achievements
Recognize improvements in performance
Recognize commendable efforts that failed
Provide recognition that is sincere
Provide recognition that is timely
Use a form of recognition appropriate for the
person and situation
© 2006 Prentice Hall
Leadership in Organizations
3-23
Chapter 4
Participative Leadership, Delegation, and
Empowerment
© 2006 Prentice Hall
Leadership in Organizations
3-24
Varieties of Participation
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Autocratic Decision
Consultation
Joint Decision
Delegation
© 2006 Prentice Hall
Leadership in Organizations
3-25
Consequences of Participative
Leadership
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Potential Benefits of Participation
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Decision quality
Decision acceptance
Satisfaction with the decision process
Development of participant skills
Objectives of Different Participants
© 2006 Prentice Hall
Leadership in Organizations
3-26
Research on Effects of Participative
Leadership
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Example of Research on Participation – Bragg &
Andrews (1973)
Effects of Participation
Limitations of Participation Research
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© 2006 Prentice Hall
Measurement problems with survey field research
Combining interventions
Short-term programs
Difficulty comparing results across studies
Leadership in Organizations
3-27
Normative Decision Model
Vroom and Yetton Model
© 2006 Prentice Hall
Leadership in Organizations
3-28
Guidelines for Participative
Leadership
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Encourage Participation
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© 2006 Prentice Hall
Encourage people to express their concerns
Describe a proposal as tentative
Record ideas and suggestions
Look for ways to build on ideas and suggestions
Be tactful in expressing concerns about a suggestion
Listen to dissenting views without getting defensive
Try to utilize suggestions and deal with concerns
Show appreciation for suggestions
Leadership in Organizations
3-29
Delegation
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Varieties of Delegation
Potential Advantages of Delegation
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© 2006 Prentice Hall
Improvement in decision quality
Greater subordinate commitment
Making subordinates’ jobs more interesting,
challenging, and meaningful
Improved time management
Important form of management development
Leadership in Organizations
3-30
Potential Advantages of
Delegation
© 2006 Prentice Hall
Leadership in Organizations
3-31
Delegation
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Reasons for Lack of Delegation
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© 2006 Prentice Hall
Aspects of the leader’s personality
Fear of subordinate making a mistake
High need for personal achievement
Characteristics of the subordinate
Nature of the work
Leadership in Organizations
3-32
Reasons for Lack of Delegation
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Leadership in Organizations
3-33
Guidelines for Delegating
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What to Delegate
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© 2006 Prentice Hall
Tasks that can be done better by a subordinate
Tasks that are urgent but not high priority
Tasks relevant to a subordinate’s career
Tasks of appropriate difficulty
Both pleasant and unpleasant tasks
Tasks not central to the manager’s role
Leadership in Organizations
3-34
Guidelines for Delegation
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How to Delegate
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© 2006 Prentice Hall
Specify responsibilities clearly
Provide adequate authority and specify limits of
discretion
Specify reporting requirements
Ensure subordinate acceptance of responsibilities
Leadership in Organizations
3-35
Delegation
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How to Manage Delegation
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© 2006 Prentice Hall
Inform others who need to know
Monitor progress in appropriate ways
Arrange for the subordinate to receive necessary
information
Provide support and assistance, but avoid reverse
delegation
Make mistakes a learning experience
Leadership in Organizations
3-36
Perceived Empowerment
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Nature of Psychological Empowerment
Consequences of Empowerment
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Benefits
Consequences
Facilitating Conditions for Empowerment
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© 2006 Prentice Hall
Job design
Organizational structure
Organizational culture
Leader selection and assessment
Procedures for influencing decisions
Shared leadership
Leadership in Organizations
3-37
Conditions Facilitating Psychological
Empowerment
© 2006 Prentice Hall
Leadership in Organizations
3-38
Guidelines for Empowerment
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Clarify objectives and explain how the work supports them
Involve people in making decisions that affect them
Delegate responsibility and authority for important activities
Take into account individual differences in motivation and
skills
Provide access to relevant information
Provide resources needed to carry out new responsibilities
Change management systems to be consistent with
empowerment
© 2006 Prentice Hall
Leadership in Organizations
3-39
Guidelines for Empowerment
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Remove bureaucratic constraints and unnecessary
controls
Express confidence and trust in people
Provide coaching and advice when requested
Encourage and support initiative and problem solving
Recognize important contributions and achievements
Ensure that rewards are commensurate with new
responsibilities
Ensure accountability for the ethical use of power
© 2006 Prentice Hall
Leadership in Organizations
3-40
Chapter 5
Dyadic Role Making, Attributions, and
Followership
© 2006 Prentice Hall
Leadership in Organizations
3-41
Leader-Member Exchange Theory
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Initial Version of LMX Theory
Role-Making Stages
Measurement of LMX
© 2006 Prentice Hall
Leadership in Organizations
3-42
Leader Attribution About
Subordinates
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Two-Stage Attribution Model
The manager tries to determine the cause of the poor
performance
2. The manager tries to select an appropriate response
to correct the problem
1.
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Types of Attributions
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Internal
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© 2006 Prentice Hall
Effort
Ability
External
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Reasons for an External Attribution
1.
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6.
7.
8.
9.
The subordinate has on prior history of poor performance
on similar tasks
The subordinate performs other tasks effectively
The subordinate is doing as well as other people who are
in a similar situation
The effects of failures or mistakes are not serious or
harmful
The manager is dependent on the subordinate for his or
her own success
The subordinate is perceived to have other redeeming
qualities
The subordinate has offered excuses or an apology
Evidence indicates external causes
Managers with prior experience doing the same kind of
work as the subordinate
© 2006 Prentice Hall
Leadership in Organizations
3-44
Correcting Performance Deficiencies
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Gather information about the performance problem
Try to avoid attributional biases
Provide corrective feedback promptly
Describe the deficiency briefly in specific terms
Explain the adverse impact of ineffective behavior
Stay calm and professional
© 2006 Prentice Hall
Leadership in Organizations
3-45
Correcting Performance Deficiencies
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Mutually identify the reasons for inadequate
performance
Ask the person to suggest remedies
Express confidence in the person
Express a sincere desire to help the person
Reach agreement on specific action steps
Summarize the discussion and verify agreement
© 2006 Prentice Hall
Leadership in Organizations
3-46
Follower Attribution and Implicit
Theories
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Determinants of Follower Attributions
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Timely indicators of performance
Direct versus indirect actions
Response in a crisis
External conditions
Constraints on leader’s decisions and actions
Leader’s intentions and competency
Leader’s personal qualities
Implicit Leadership Theories
© 2006 Prentice Hall
Leadership in Organizations
3-47
Impression Management
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Impression Management Tactics
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Exemplification
Ingratiation
Self-Promotion
Intimidation
Impression Management by Followers
Impression Management by Leaders
© 2006 Prentice Hall
Leadership in Organizations
3-48
Follower Contribution to Effective
Leadership
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The Courageous Follower
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© 2006 Prentice Hall
Need to implement decisions made by a leader and
challenge misguided or unethical decisions
Willing to risk leader’s displeasure
Take time and effort to help a leader grow and succeed
Strong commitment to the organization and its mission
Leadership in Organizations
3-49
Self-Management
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Strategies
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Behavioral Strategies
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Cognitive Strategies
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Self-reward
Self-punishment
Self-monitoring
Self-goal setting
Self-rehearsal
Cue modification
Positive self-talk
Mental rehearsal
How Leaders Encourage Self-Management
© 2006 Prentice Hall
Leadership in Organizations
3-50
Guidelines for Followers
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Find out what you are expected to do
Take the initiative to deal with problems
Keep the boss informed about your decisions
Verify the accuracy of information you give the
boss
Encourage the boss to provide honest feedback to
you
© 2006 Prentice Hall
Leadership in Organizations
3-51
Guidelines for Followers
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Support leader efforts to make necessary changes
Show appreciation and provide recognition when
appropriate
Challenge flawed plans and proposals made by
leaders
Resist inappropriate influence attempts by the
boss
Provide upward coaching and counseling when
appropriate
© 2006 Prentice Hall
Leadership in Organizations
3-52