Slide 1
THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
(1789-1815)
AND NAPOLEON
Slide 2
SOURCES









Dupuy, The Evolution of Weapons and Warfare, pp. 154-168
Dupuy and Dupuy, The Encylopedia of Military History; pp. 730-769
Fuller, A Military History of the Western World, Vol. II, Chronicles 12,
13, 14, 15; ch. 12-15; pp.370-542
Montross, War Through the Ages, pp. 459-554
Paret, Makers of Modern Strategy, pp123-142 (1986 Sequel)
Jones, The Art of War in the Western World, pp.320-358
Preston and Wise, Men in Arms, pp. 179-187
Mathews, French Revolution, pp. 2-15
Roberts, The French Revolution, pp. 21-40
Slide 3

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Know and trace the transition from limited war to
unlimited war during the French Revolution
 Comprehend the uniqueness of the Revolution
Army, the role of ideology in the levee en
masse, & the problems of controlling such an
army
 Comprehend and relate the rise of Napoleon to
the failure of the French Revolution
 Know and discuss the impact of new technology
on warfare in the Napoleonic period
Slide 4
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Know and contrast Napolean’s victory at
Austerlitz and his defeat at Waterloo
 Comprehend and explain how the stalemate
at sea and on land in 1805 dictated a strategy
of economic warfare
 Comprehend and explain how Napoleon’s
Russian campaign underscored his weakness
as a “grand strategist”
 Know and list Napoleon’s major contributions
to military thought

Slide 5
PERIODS OF THE
REVOLUTION
 Five sub-periods
distinguished by form of
government
– Estates
– Legislative Assembly
– National Convention
– Directory
– Consulate
– First Empire
Slide 6
Slide 7
ESTATES
General and Constituent Assembly
 5 May 1789 - 30 Sep 1791
 Government a limited, constitutional
monarchy
 Dominance of upper middle class

Slide 8
LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY
1 Oct 1791 - 21 Sep 1792
 Monarchy continued as before until
suspended
 Rising power of the lower class

Slide 9
NATIONAL
CONVENTION
21 Sep 1792 - 25 Oct 1795
 Height of revolution
 Convention called to frame new constitution
 Abolished monarchy
 Supported reign of terror, then overthrew it
 Led resistance to foreign foes
 War with Austria & Prussia politically endued
toward democracy

Slide 10
DIRECTORY
26 Oct 1795 - 9 Nov 1799
 Middle classes recovered influence
 Party divisions
 General Bonaparte’s coup d-etat
 Formed republic with Napoleon as Emperor

Slide 11
CONSULATE
At first provisional, then
definitive
 25 Dec 1799 - 20 May
1804
 Civil and military role,
virtually of one man
 Progress of French
arms
 Form still nominally
republican

Slide 12
FIRST EMPIRE
20 May 1804 - 22 Jun 1815
 Napoleon made France the controlling power
on the continent, but was finally overthrown

Slide 13
Slide 14
BACKGROUND

Spirit of 18th Century

Agrarian conditions - peasantry mostly free
but highly taxed; not downtrodden, but
well-off enough to wish to better
themselves
– devoted to destruction and reformation of
existing institutions
– most notable manifestations: the attacks of
French writers upon church and state
Slide 15
BACKGROUND

Rise of the middle class

Unwieldy and inefficient machinery of
government
– generally excluded from politics; growing richer;
read and listened to philosophies
– irresponsible and unsuited to needs of state
– taxation was inequitable
– no representative assembly
– Letters de Cachet - imprisoning without habeas
corpus: served as anti-government propaganda
Slide 16
BACKGROUND

Ever-growing deficit
– proved impossible of reduction
– May 1789: Louis XVI convened meeting of
Estates General (represented 3 estates of
French society - Nobles, Clergy and Commons)
– Commons assumed title of National Assembly
and undertook to reform government by
formulating a constitution for a constitutional
monarchy
Slide 17
NATIONAL ASSEMBLY

5 May 1789
– Meeting of Estates General
– National Assembly formed by Commons
– Members of Nobles and Clergy invited to
join
– Many joined the assembly
Slide 18
NATIONAL ASSEMBLY

23 Jun 1789
– Fruitless royal sitting
– King ordered assembly to
meet in 3 houses
– Mirabeau (Provencial
nobleman) elected principal
orator of assembly by 3rd
estate
– King requested nobles &
clergy join 3rd estate
Slide 19
NATIONAL ASSEMBLY

14 Jul 1789
– Concentration of troops near Paris
– Rumors of kings intention to dissolve National
Assembly
– Dismissal of Necker
– Storming and destruction of the Bastille
Slide 20
NATIONAL ASSEMBLY

Necker recalled
– Lafayette
commander of
newly established
National Guard
– Rising of peasants
against feudal lords
– Beginning of
emigration of nobles
Slide 21
NATIONAL ASSEMBLY

4 Aug 1789

27 Aug 1789
– Voluntary surrender by representatives of nobles
of all feudal rights and privileges to occur over
period of years
– Declaration of rights of man, a bill of rights
compounded from English and American
precedents and from political theories current
with the philosophies
Slide 22
NATIONAL ASSEMBLY

5-6 Oct 1789 - Outbreak of the mob of Paris
– Liberal monarchical constitution: king could not
declare war and conclude peace without consent
of chamber
– Ecclesiastic estates declared public property and
notes issued under security of public lands
Slide 23
NATIONAL ASSEMBLY

14 Jul 1790
– National federation in Paris
– Constitution accepted by king
– Abolished hereditary nobility, titles, and coats
of arms
Slide 24
NATIONAL ASSEMBLY

Power of clubs grow
– Jacobins under Robespierre
– Cordeliers under Danton, Marat, Desmoulins,
Hebert
– Feuillants - moderate monarchists separated
from Jacobins - Lafayette and Bailly
Slide 25
NATIONAL ASSEMBLY

Sep 1790
– Fall of Necker
– alliance between Mirabeau and court, who
endeavored to stem revolution and prevent
overthrow of throne
2 Apr 1791 - Death of Mirabeau
 20 - 25 Jun 1791 - Flight of the king

Slide 26
NATIONAL ASSEMBLY

14 Sep 1791

30 Sep 1791
– King accepts constitution
– Annexation of Avignon and Benaissin to France
– Dissolution of Assembly
Slide 27
LEGISLATIVE
ASSEMBLY

1 Oct 1791

7 Feb 1792
– Legislative Assembly, 745 members elected by
active citizens
– still represented primarily middle class
– Alliance of Austria and Prussia against France
Slide 28
NATIONAL
CONVENTION

War of First Coalition against France
– 20 Apr 1792 - France declares war on Austria increases revolutionary excitement in Paris
– 10 Aug 1792 - Storming of Tuileries by mob - king
suspended from functions and confined
– 20 Aug 1792 - Lafayette, impeached and proscribed
fled from army - Verdun taken by Prussians
– 2-7 Sep 1792 - September massacres at Paris
– 20 Sep 1792 - Battle of Valmy - French, under
Dumouriey and Kellermann, defeated Prussians
Slide 29
NATIONAL
CONVENTION

21 Sep 1792
– National Convention convened
– Abolition of Monarchy - France declared a
Republic
Dec 1792 - Trial of Louis XVI
 21 Jan 1793 - Execution of Louis XVI
 1 Feb 1793 - War declared against Great
Britain, Holland, Spain

Slide 30
NATIONAL
CONVENTION

Reign of Terror - Robespierre gradually came to
dominate the whole government
– 23 Aug 1793-Levy of males; 14 armies raised
– 16 Oct 1793 - Execution of Marie Antoinette
– Nov 1793 - New army under Jourdan, Hoche &
Pichegru
– Dec 1793 - Retreat of Allies across the Rhine.
French captured Worms and Speier, and took
Toulon from British (first appearance of Napoleon
Bonaparte as young artillery officer)
Slide 31
NATIONAL
CONVENTION
Mar 1794 - Robespierre succeeded in
crushing rival powers
 27 Jul 1794 - Fall of Robespierre
 5 Mar 1795 - Treaty of Bassel between
France and Prussia

Slide 32
NATIONAL CONVENTION

22 Aug 1795 - Constitution of 1797 - 3rd of
revolution
– Executing power: Directory of five, Council of
Elders, and Council of 500
– First Term: 2/3 of each council taken from Nat.
Conv.
– General Bonaparte placed in charge of troops
Slide 33
NATIONAL
CONVENTION

5 Oct 1795

26 Oct 1795
– Paris royalists instigated outbreak of sections in
opposition of 2/3 self protection measure of
convention for 1st term council
– Napoleon’s “whiff of grapeshot” led to complete
victory for convention
– Convention dissolved
– 1797 - Moderate legislative elected
– End of war - coup d’etat
Slide 34

IMPACT OF
REVOLUTION
Larger armies led to unlimited warfare
– Emergence of democratic ideal; emphasis on
individual freedom, equality & popular government
• John Locke
• Jean Jacques Rousseau - citizen had responsibility to
fight in defense of country (not a logical thought for 18th
century monarchies)
• American Revolution and apologists
• Conscription is unthinkable without this ideology
(governed were now governing, had affirmative
obligation to defend government)
Slide 35
IMPACT OF
REVOLUTION

Ability to man, control, arm, feed large armies

Line formation of battle vs. the column
– Larger populations
– Improved communications systems
– Beginnings of mass production
– Improved agricultural methods
– Line provided more firepower (muskets)
– Column could break the line
Slide 36

IMPACT OF
REVOLUTION
Military theories of Comptee Jacques de
Guibert
– Ordre mixte; combo of column (approach and
maneuver) and line (fighting)
– Breaking army into smaller units or divisions
• advance along several routes
• mass forces at precise time and place
– Dispersion then concentration at critical time and
place
Slide 37
IMPACT OF
REVOLUTION

13 Jul 1789

14 Jul 1789

Jul 1792
– Crowd seizes 28,000 muskets and some cannon
from military storage depot
– Bastille stormed and governor lynched
– Paris mob storms palace, massacres Swiss guard
– Lafayette tries to get men to save king, they refuse
and Lafayette goes over to Austrians
– Louis XVI executed in 1793
Slide 38

IMPACT OF
REVOLUTION
Lazare Carnot succeeded in gaining control
of Revolutionary Army
– Aug 1793 in charge of military affairs for
committee of Public Safety
– Emphasis on offensive in mass
– Organized National Army
– Foraging enhanced mobility
– By 1794 French Army enjoyed both Mass and
Mobility, Napoleon and 8 of his future marshals
made general @ average age of 33
Slide 39

IMPACT OF
REVOLUTION
Armies created by revolution eventually made
Bonaparte Emperor of France (back to
autocracy)
– Moderate legislature elected in 1797 desired end
of war
– 3 radical directors conspired with Bonaparte to
arrange coup d’etat
– In ensuing coup, Carnot escaped to Switzerland
Slide 40

IMPACT OF
TECHNOLOGY
Gribeauval’s artillery reforms
– interchangeable parts
– improved cartridges (ball and charge packed
together)
– Tangent sight
– Ammunition wagons
– By time of revolution, constant drill had made
French clearly superior
Slide 41
IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY
Mobility and communication enhanced by
improved roads and maps and signal
telegraph
 Napoleon, resistant to new weapons and
technology, failed to make use of balloons
and shrapnel

Slide 42
NAPOLEON

First gained renown at age 24
– Command of artillery in 1794 siege of Toulon
– Awarded temporary rank of Brigadier General
(from Captain)
– Oct 1795 - saved government of Directory by
using guns against Paris mob (“whiff of
grapeshot”)
– Promoted by Directory - promised command of
Army of Italy in 1796
– Read incessantly - Guibert, Voltaire, Rousseau,
Frederick the Great
Slide 43
FRENCH COLUMN VS.
LINE
Slide 44
ITALIAN CAMPAIGN
Directors feared his ambition - in Mar 1796
given command of Army of Italy
 45,000, ill fed, poorly equipped, four dispersed
divisions and two smaller detachments
 British blockaded coast, 2 smaller allied
armies were widely separated beyond hills to
north
 Improved logistical organization & motivated
men with promises of booty and glory

Slide 45
ITALIAN CAMPAIGN
– Commenced campaign
• Burst from position along coast & separated two allied
armies
• fist surrendered, second fell back to Lombardy
• Remained on strategic defensive
• Blockaded Austrian force at Mantua, and defeated
several Austrian armies approaching Mantua to give relief
(used interior lines)
• After seizing Mantua, moved into Austria quickly bringing
them to terms
– Won 12 victories in 12 months using rapid marches,
flexibility in maneuver, & concentration of force
Slide 46
NAPOLEON IN ITALY
Slide 47
EGYPTION CAMPAIGN
Couldn’t defeat England at sea
 Directory agreed to seize Egypt as base for
further operations against England’s oriental
empire
 May 1798 - Sailed from Toulon w/35,000
veterans from Italian campaign
 Captured Malta and arrived @ Alexandria on
1 July

Slide 48
DURING MARCH ON
CAIRO
Encountered 60,000 Mamelukes (superb
cavalry force) in battle of pyramids
 Napoleon’s efficient volleys of infantry and
guns in checkerboard formation prevailed
 Loaded muskets in inner ranks & passed up
to soldiers in front, producing devastating fire

Slide 49
EGYPTION CAMPAIGN

Fought in Egypt and Syria another 12 months

Strategically, Egyptian expedition made no
sense
– Realized further glory unlikely without
reinforcements from France
– Had received info that Directory was failing
– Aug 1799 - relinquished command & returned to
France
– Victory offset by Nelson’s victory @ Aboukir Bay;
Weak French Navy doomed campaign (SLOC)
Slide 50
ULM and AUSTERLITZ
Napoleon turned Eastward
 Third Coalition (Britain, Austria, Russia)
formed against him, but forces still scattered
 Main axis: Danube Valley running through
Austria towards Prussia
 Napoleon needed to strike first to prevent
massing of 140,000 men at Ulm
 Decided to strike Austrians at Ulm first, then
move down Danube to deal with Russians

Slide 51
ULM - Oct 1805
Grand Army (200,000) secretly marched in 7
columns from Boulogne
 Cavalry force demonstrated West while 6
columns swept North & East behind Austrians
 After one futile attempt to break out, Austrians
surrendered 30,000 troops
 One of finest examples of turning movement strategic victory so overwhelming it was never
seriously contested in tactical combat

Slide 52
Slide 53

AUSTERLITZ - Dec 1805
Napoleon marched down Danube through
Vienna, Moravia, and Bohemia
– 90,000 enemy @ Olmutz with secure
communications
– Napoleon (65,000) was overextended
– Another enemy force of 90,000 was approaching
Olmutz

Napoleon needed to retreat or win a decisive
victory
Slide 54
AUSTERLITZ - Dec 1805
Napoleon’s plan - Lure Russians into attack
by showing weak front and apparently
exposed flank
 Allies’ plans - Attack French from flank and
front, while holding in position further North
 Napoleon’s advantage - forced plan on
opponents

Slide 55

AUSTERLITZ - Dec
1805
The battle
– Dawn 2 Dec, Allied main attack on right flank
– By 9:00 am, 1/3 of allied army on right flank
– French center (under Soult) then assaulted, splitting
allied front and encircling left
– French drown Russians on frozen ponds w/arty
– Bernadotte assaulted through gap caused by Soult
– Lannes’ Corps drove Allied right until enveloped by
Bernadotte
– Over by 5:00pm, Allies lost 27,000, French 8,000
Slide 56
Slide 57
AUSTERLITZ - Dec 1805
Napoleon considered Austerlitz his
masterpiece
 Gained complete local superiority @ decisive
point
 Maneuvered to obtain victory
 Austerlitz ranks with Arbela, Cannae, and
Leuthen as tactical masterpieces

Slide 58
CONFLICT WITH ENGLAND

Victories had created many valuable reforms
– 1/2 million sq mi, 44 million people in kingdom
– Equality before law
– Abolition of serfdom
– Religious toleration
– Secular education
– Unified systems of justice
– Road building
Slide 59
CONFLICT WITH ENGLAND

Britain problem remains unsolved - War at sea

Lost fleet - Napoleon attempted economic war
– Early 1798 ordered construction of fleet
– Strike England’s Eastern trade by seizing Malta
– Nelson destroyed French fleet in Battle of the Nile
– Trafalgar, last major battle of Age of Sail, made
England totally dominant at sea
– Continental system: no trade w/England, prevent
her ability to service debt and raise enemies against
Napoleon
Slide 60
WEAKNESS IN STRATEGY
A federated Europe would threaten England’s
dominance as sea power
 England needed Allies on continent,
Napoleon couldn’t subjugate entire continent
 Deprived continent of England’s goods involved entire continent in war
 Portugal was main POE for England’s goods
- French control in Spain led to revolt

Slide 61
THE SPANISH
PROBLEM
1807 - Napoleon turns attention to Portugal
 Britain set example by attacking Portugal and
seizing Danish fleet - Portuguese ignored
Napoleon’s threats
 Oct 1807 - Weak Spanish government allowed
Napoleon to attack Portugal
 French captured Lisbon
 Napoleon had brother placed on Spanish
throne
 Revolt ensued in Spain

Slide 62
THE SPANISH PROBLEM
Spanish Guerrillas and English Army allied
 1810 - French troops increased to 370,000
 Guerillas successful - about 100 French
casualties/day
 More casualties/equipment loss than defeats
in battle
 Napoleon’s first serious reverse encouragement for other Europeans, denied
him of forces for Russian operations

Slide 63
British Line Superior to French
Column in Spain
Slide 64
RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN
Due to setbacks @ Friedland and Eylan,
Czar sought alliance with Napoleon
 Alliance short lived due to Russian desire to
trade w/Britain
 1812 - Secret agreement between Czar &
London
 Napoleon raised army of 680,000 from all of
Europe

– Size of Army dictated direct approach
– Only 200,000 French - depending on support of
defeated nations
Slide 65
RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN
Numerous logistics setbacks in beginning of
campaign
 Dilemma

– Couldn’t winter over at Smolensk (unable to
provision army & Sweden threatened rear)
– Retreat before Winter or advance to Moscow
– Napoleon advanced toward Moscow hoping for
decisive victory
Slide 66
RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN

Despite some brilliant battles, most were
frontal assaults w/no effort to maneuver
– Napoleon’s personal illness - no vigorous
pursuits and on one occasion gave up control of
battle
– Needless cruelty enraged Russians
– Russian Guerrilla campaign against
communications
Slide 67
RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN
– Poor roads/hostile population didn’t support
mass/mobility
– Russian “scorched earth” policy prevented
foraging
– Weakened army fell prey to disease (lost 1/4
combat effectiveness before contact with enemy)
– Unwilling warriors deserted in droves
Slide 68
RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN
Sept 14th - entered Moscow - hollow victory
since Russians had burned city & retreated
 Oct 19th - began retreat, hampered by:

– Snow & bitter cold
– Russian Regular/Irregular Forces
– Ineffective supply system
– 40,000 vehicles loaded with “loot” vice supplies
– Breakdown of discipline wasted supplies
Slide 69
RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN

Weakness - Resupply (poor preparation) &
Timing (time of year & still involved in Spain)
Slide 70
Napoleon in Russia
Slide 71
POST RUSSIAN
CAMPAIGNS

French disposition
 Allied disposition
– 50,000 in German
– Bernadotte - 60,000 moving
garrisons
through Low Countries
– 100,000 fighting in
– Blucher - 75,000 advancing
Spain
up Moselle Valley
– 50,000 fighting
– Schwarzenberg - 210,000,
Austrians in
moving from Switzerland
Northeastern Italy
through Belfort Gap
– 118,000 mustered in
– Combined objective was
France
Paris
Slide 72
WATERLOO - 18 June 1815
Napoleon raises army to battle allies
gathering to depose him
 16 June - initiates contact w/Prussians
@ Ligny

– Sent Marshal Ney to defeat British Brigade
and flank Blucher while Napoleon drove him
back
– British held, preventing flanking maneuver
and allowing Prussians to retreat
Slide 73
WATERLOO - 18 June 1815
17 June - Napoleon unsuccessful in reaching
Blucher before he reconstituted forces and
headed West to aid Wellington and British
forces
 18 June - Napoleon attacks Wellington

– Cavalry attempted breakthrough (failed due to not
enough infantry support)
– Later, infantry attempts breakthrough without
artillery support and fails
– Wellington counterattacked, sending French into
panic

21 June 1815 - Napoleon surrenders and
exiled to St. Helena, dies on 5 May 1821
Slide 74
Slide 75
NAPOLEON’S IMPACT

Elements of
Napoleonic
warfare
– Unity of
Command
– Generalship
and Soldiership
– Planning
NAPOLEON’S IMPACT
Slide 76

Principles of Napoleonic warfare
– Mass
• “Distribute your troops in such a way that,
whatever the enemy does, you will be able to
unite your forces within a few days”
• “God is on the side of the heavier battalions”
– Offensive - invariably seized initiative
– Objective - always main body of army
– Simplicity - recognized importance of simple
plan
– Economy of force - used small numbers in
defense and concentrated combat power at
critical point
Slide 77
NAPOLEON’S IMPACT

Principles of Napoleonic warfare
– Maneuver - (strategic and tactical) Napoleon’s
hallmark
– Unity of Command - essential
– Surprise - greatest moral force (Austerlitz; 1814
campaign)
– Security
• For army and plans
• Precautions for all-around defense
Slide 78
NAPOLEON’S IMPACT

Three variations in pattern of strategy
– “Maneuver in the rear” (flanking attack
and envelopment)
– “The Central Position: (interior lines)
– Frontal attack - if other two options not
possible due to time, terrain, or enemy
disposition
Slide 79
NAPOLENIC STRATEGY
Get astride the enemy’s line of
communications
 Superiority of numbers at the crucial point
 Move rapidly
 If superior in force, envelop; If inferior, defeat
the enemy in detail by use of interior lines
 Unity of Command

Slide 80
NAPOLENIC TACTICS
Feel out the soft spot with skirmishers
 Concentrate artillery at that point
 Pour troops through that point in column
 Pursue with mobile forces

Slide 81
NAPOLEON’S FAILURE
Inability to make peace with England
 Armies spread revolutionary zeal
 Economic problems with protectionist attitude
 Over-centralization of command

– Widespread, complex and considerable forces
couldn’t be controlled without well-organized
general staff
– Didn’t include staff in planning
– Stifled subordinates
Slide 82
SUMMARY
Transition from limited war to unlimited war
during the French Revolution
 Revolution Army unique, the role of ideology
in the levee en masse, problems of controlling
such an army
 Impact of new technology on warfare in the
Napoleonic period

Slide 83
SUMMARY
Napolean victorous at Austerlitz but defeated at Waterloo
Stalemate at sea and on land in 1805 dictated a strategy of economic
warfare
Napoleon’s Russian campaign underscored his weakness as a “grand
strategist”
Napoleon major contributer to military thought
Slide 84
QUESTIONS?