A Benchmarking Study of the Environmental and Pedagogical Challenges
of Moving Courses to an Online or Hybrid Format
Lora Honeycutt
The Best Ways to Provide Students with Feedback
Recently, San Diego State University (SDSU) began moving many of their large undergraduate
courses online. Fall of 2010 found 38 such courses online (Dabboussy, 2010). Dr. Minjuan Wang
proposed a study to find the challenges faced by instructors and the university itself in moving
these courses online. The first step in completing this research is to conduct a benchmarking
study and uncover the current best practices and industry leaders in online instruction.
This literature review is part of a larger benchmarking study which addresses the leading factors
leading to student satisfaction with online courses and the optimal methods for fostering an
interactive learning environment. This portion of the literature review focuses on the best ways
to provide student feedback in online courses.
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The review is focuses on the following three areas that are related to feedback in online
classes: feedback sources, Frequency and timeliness of feedback

Feedback methods
Feedback Sources
In the online environment, various sources are available to provide feedback: peers, instructors
and the students themselves. A wide range of research has been performed in all three areas, with
each source of feedback providing positive elements to online feedback.
Peer Feedback
Chickering and Gamson (1987) created the Seven Principles of Good practice to establish best
practices for instruction in new, technology based environments They discuss, among other
ideas, peer-based feedback and its value to online courses. They found when peer reviews and
feedback are encouraged and utilized, learning becomes a group effort, much like the work
performed in a “real world” environment. “Working with others often increases involvement in
learning. Sharing one’s ideas and responding to others’ improves thinking and deepens
understanding” (Chickering & Ehrmann 1996, p. #). They proposed using social tools such as
email, chat and social networking to strengthen study groups, collaborative learning, group
problem solving, and discussion of assignments (Chickering, Ehrmann, 1996) allowing peers to
share information and feedback quickly and efficiently.
Instructor Feedback
Just as in traditional classrooms, instructor feedback plays a huge role in the success of students
online. Espasa and Meneses (2009) studied 186 graduate students from several courses at the
Universitat Oberta de Catalunya (UOC, Open University of Catalonia) to find how much
instructor feedback affected their success. Of the 186 students, 48.1% of those students who did
not receive adequate instructor feedback failed their courses. Those students who did receive
feedback obtained good, very good or excellent grades 78.9% of the time. Clearly, students who
received instructor feedback achieved better grades and “a positive association was found to
exist between student satisfaction with the general functioning of the course and feedback
received” (Espasa, Meneses, 2009, p. #).
In much the same way that peer-feedback can be helpful to students in online courses,
Chickering and Ehrmann note communication technologies can increase access to faculty
members, which can replace the face-to-face interaction found in traditional classroom based
courses. Such technologies can even strengthen faculty interactions with students, especially
those quieter students who may be reluctant to ask questions about the course material or to
question the instructor. “It is often easier to discuss values and personal concerns in writing than
orally, since inadvertent or ambiguous nonverbal signals are not so dominant” (Chickering,
Ehrmann 1996). Technology provides opportunities for quality interaction with instructors and
peers, even allowing for more interaction than that which may exist in the traditional classroom
setting where students often rush off immediately after the course concludes.
Self-Feedback
The feedback source thought to be most beneficial is self-feedback; that is, the feedback students
give themselves. In online courses, students should be given feedback to empower them to selfregulate their learning (Juwah Macfarlane-Dick, Matthew, Nicol, Ross, & Smith, 2004). Sadler
(1989) found internal self-feedback is “derived from a comparison of current progress against
internal goals or standards” (as referenced in Juwah et al. 2004). He argued that in many
educational settings teachers give students feedback on how their performance compares to an
established standard, but this feedback does not fully explain how to better meet the established
goals. “By administering feedback which allows students to self-regulate, their learning becomes
more effective and satisfying” (Sadler, 1989 as referenced in Juwah et al. 2004). Gaps are then
internally identified and further action is taken to close these gaps. Learners are assumed to be
active participants in the learning processes and have the potential to regulate their own learning
(Lee, Lim, Grabowski, 2010).
Frequency and Timeliness of Feedback
The amount of feedback, given at the right time, can also make a difference to learner success. In
the early stages of an online course, students may need help determining what they currently
know about a subject and how competent and confident they feel in the course material
(Chickering, Ehrmann, 1996). Then, during online class sessions, students need frequent
opportunities to perform and receive feedback on their performance. Chickering and Ehrmann
also found students need chances to “reflect on what they have learned, what they still need to
know, and how they might assess themselves.”
One type of feedback studied is rapid feedback, i.e. feedback provided almost instantaneously
either through some technological means or from the instructor themselves. In a study by Chen,
Kadlowec and Whittinghill (2010), students were provided rapid feedback when answering
questions on personal digital assistants (PDA) or with flash cards. In both cases, their level of
success was communicated immediately. Students were then surveyed and overwhelmingly
responded that rapid feedback was helpful to them, regardless of the means in which the
feedback was provided. The instructor involved in the study also felt the rapid feedback was
helpful. He observed that “the students took the feedback questions in class quite seriously and
tried hard to answer them correctly even though no grade was involved. This was an additional
benefit because the students were forced to think about and apply the concepts now rather than
later (or perhaps much later) when they sat down to do homework” (Chen, Kadlowec,
Whittinghill, 2010). The results of the rapid feedback also allowed the instructor to improve
future instruction by noting those questions the students missed most often. However, perhaps
the most important finding was that student satisfaction with classes in which rapid feedback was
provided proved to be extremely high (Chen, Kadlowec, Whittinghill, 2010).
Rapid feedback is not always as beneficial as it could be if it fails to lead to student selfreflection. Espasa and Meneses (2009) found some issues with feedback in their study for the
UOC. In the classes they studied, rapid feedback was most often offered as continuous
assessment during course meetings, with feedback given after an assignment the second most
common type of feedback. However, both types of feedback basically provided information
about errors made in class or while completing an assignment and provided the correct answers,
but neglected to direct the student how to improve their work (Espasa, Meneses, 2009).
Feedback Methods
In online courses, a wide variety of technologies are available to communicate and provide
feedback to students. Email, chat tools, and the internet increase opportunities for students and
faculty to interact very quickly and easily and with less pressure than that of face-to-face
communication found in the traditional classroom setting. Overall, communication via
technology shows an increase in frequency and, for many students, the resulting interactions
seem more intimate, protected, and convenient (Chickering, Ehrmann, 1996). New technologies
can provide feedback in a wide variety of formats. Some technologies found to be of great use
include online discussion boards and email/Listserv (Tan, Wang, Xiao, 2010). In addition,
computers can keep track of several drafts of assignments allowing instructors and students to
see improvements and informational/knowledge gains over time (Chickering, Ehrmann, 1996).
Instructors are encouraged to further use quizzes that provide immediate feedback, polls to spark
discussion and constantly scan the synchronous online chat during course convenings to
acknowledge and answer questions or further discuss any comments (Tan, Wang, Xiao, 2010).
This feedback information can also help teachers realign their teaching in response to learners’
needs or gaps found in the course material (Juwah et al. 2004).
Another potentially useful tool is a confidence indicator tool built in to learning assessment
programs. Nix and Wylie conducted a study of 12 social work students and their interaction with
a Learning with Interactive Assessment (LINA) program. The program included a confidence
indicator tool to enhance and encourage learner reflection. The subjects were questioned about
the confidence-indicator tool and 83% felt it might improve their reflective practice. “Learners
welcomed the opportunity to configure and control their own mode of learning” (Nix, Wyllie
2011) through the ability to pause to decide confidence and justify decisions with the confidence
indicator tool. The subjects also intimated the tool encouraged self-assessment and reflection,
which may ultimately lead to greater understanding and retention.
The study found, while not all students were good at self-assessment, they may still benefit from
prompted reflection and the ability to mold their learning environment. “The more we can
prepare and develop learner skills in managing their own learning environment, the more we will
be equipping them to be effective learners. By allowing choice within the assessment
environment, we liberate learners to do things their way, reflecting their characteristics, and
harnessing their motivation to achieve the best result” (Nix, Wyllie 2011). The confidence-based
self-assessment tool was found to be more relevant during the early stages of learning rather than
the later, more cumulative lessons and helped build confidence throughout the course leading to
greater student performance.
Another valuable feedback method involves learners creating their own questions. A study by
Mevarech and Fridkin found those students who created their own questions for reflection
significantly outperformed the students who did not create such questions. To that end, Lee, Lim
and Grabowski proposed instructional designers or instructors design computer-based learning
environments that help learners regulate and monitor their learning processes and allow learners
generate their own learning strategies and opportunities for refection (Lee, Lim, Grabowski,
2010). These feedback methods and sources will prove valuable as further research is conducted
on moving courses online.
Need a conclusion: summarize all the above, and connect it to you study.
Appendix A: References
Chen, J. C., Kadlowec, J. A., & Whittinghill, D. C. (2010). Classes That Click: Fast, Rich
Feedback to Enhance Student Learning and Satisfaction. Journal of Engineering
Education, 99(2), 159-168.
Chickering, A., & Ehrmann, S.C. (1996, October). Implementing the Seven Principles:
Technology as Lever. American Association for Higher Education Bulletin, 3-6.
Dabboussy, L. (2011). EDTEC 798 - Administrative, Financial, Environmental and Pedagogical
Challenges that SDSU faculty face as they move their on-campus to the online format.
Unpublished research report, San Diego State University.
Espasa, A., & Meneses, J. (2009). Analysing feedback processes in an online teaching and
learning environment: an exploratory study. Higher Education, 59(3), 277-292.
Juwah, C., Macfarlane-Dick, D., Matthew, B., Nicol, D., Ross, D., & Smith, B. (2006)
Enhancing Student Learning Through Effective Formative Feedback. The Higher
Education Academy Generic Center.
Lee, H.W., Lim, K.Y., & Grabowski, B.L. (2010). Improving self-regulation, learning strategy
use and achievement with metacognitive feedback. Education Technology Research &
Development, 58, 629-648.
Nix, I. & Wyllie, A. (2011) Exploring design features to enhance computer-based assessment:
learner’ views on using a confidence indicator tool and computer-based feedback. British
Journal of Educational Technology, 42(1), 101-112.
Tan, L., Wang, M., & Xiao, J. (2010). Best Practices in Teaching Online or Hybrid Courses: A
Synthesis of Principles