Now you are (almost!) ready to read your
scientific article!
This powerpoint will help you prepare to read a
scientific article, specifically for the purpose of
writing a Natural Inquirer article.
Note: This powerpoint is heavy on text, and is longer
than previous powerpoint sessions. Be prepared! You
may want to divide it into two sessions.
First, let’s learn how to read any
scientific article!
(Don’t read this one yet, it’s just an illustration!)
EFFECT OF CLIMATE FLUCTUATIONS ON LONG-TERM VEGETATION
DYNAMICS IN CAROLINA BAY WETLANDS
Chrissa L. Stroh1,4, Diane De Steven2, and Glenn R. Guntenspergen3
Abstract: Carolina bays and similar depression wetlands of the U.S. Southeastern Coastal Plain
have hydrologic regimes that are driven primarily by rainfall. Therefore, climate fluctuations such
as drought cycles have the potential to shape long-term vegetation dynamics. Models suggest two
potential long-term responses to hydrologic fluctuations, either cyclic change maintaining open
emergent vegetation, or directional succession toward forest vegetation. In seven Carolina bay
wetlands on the Savannah River Site, South Carolina, we assessed hydrologic variation and
vegetation response over a 15-year period spanning two drought and reinundation cycles. Changes
in pond stage (water depth) were monitored biweekly to monthly each year from 1989–2003.
Vegetation composition was sampled in three years (1989, 1993, and 2003) and analyzed in
relation to changes in hydrologic conditions. Multi-year droughts occurred prior to the 1989 and
2003 sampling years, whereas 1993 coincided with a wet period…
Reading a Scientific Article
•When reading a scientific article in preparation for
rewriting it, you must first read the article for
overall comprehension.
•To comprehend the article you must understand
the main points of each major article section.
•A brief introduction to the typical major article
sections follows on the next slide. More detail will
come later.
Introduction: Provides background about the problem. Leads to
the research question. States the research question.
Method: Outlines the methods used to answer the research
question. Should include information about the variables studied
(and their definitions), time frames and design of data collection,
and type of analysis (data handling: summary, comparisons, etc.).
Findings: Gives the results of the analysis.
Discussion or Implications: Discusses the findings in light
of the original problem. Provides possible implications, the “so
what” of the findings in light of the original problem.
As you read the article….
•You can check your comprehension by trying to explain,
in general terms, the article’s “story” to someone else.
(Try it when you are ready!)
•Following comprehension, you can begin to place your
understanding into a context for learning. You must first
comprehend before you can develop a learning tool.
•Okay, let’s learn about scientific articles and how to
read them.
Anatomy Of a Scientific Paper
This information is from
http://www.biochem.arizona.edu/classes/bioc568/papers.htm#organization
Organization of a scientific paper
In most scientific journals, scientific papers follow a standard format. They are
divided into several sections, and each section serves a specific purpose in
the paper. We first describe the standard format, then some variations on that
format.
A paper begins with a short Summary or Abstract. Generally, it gives a brief
background to the topic; describes concisely the major findings of the paper;
and relates these findings to the field of study. As will be seen, this logical
order is also that of the paper as a whole. Abstracts generally include
information from all four of the paper’s major sections.
Always read the abstract before reading the paper. The abstract gives you an
overview of all of the article’s sections, and provides a short introduction to the
entire article.
EFFECT OF CLIMATE FLUCTUATIONS ON LONG-TERM VEGETATION
DYNAMICS IN CAROLINA BAY WETLANDS
Chrissa L. Stroh1,4, Diane De Steven2, and Glenn R. Guntenspergen3
Abstract: Carolina bays and similar depression wetlands of the U.S. Southeastern Coastal Plain have hydrologic regimes that are driven
primarily by rainfall. Therefore, climate fluctuations such as drought cycles have the potential to shape long-term vegetation dynamics. Models
suggest two potential longterm responses to hydrologic fluctuations, either cyclic change maintaining open emergent vegetation, or directional
succession toward forest vegetation. In seven Carolina bay wetlands on the Savannah River Site, South Carolina, we assessed hydrologic
variation and vegetation response over a 15-year period spanning two drought and reinundation cycles. Changes in pond stage (water depth)
were monitored biweekly to monthly each year from 1989–2003. Vegetation composition was sampled in three years (1989, 1993, and 2003) and
analyzed in relation to changes in hydrologic conditions. Multi-year droughts occurred prior to the 1989 and 2003 sampling years, whereas 1993
coincided with a wet period. Wetland plant species generally maintained dominance after both wet and dry conditions, but the abundances of
different plant growth forms and species indicator categories shifted over the 15-year period. Decreased hydroperiods and water depths during
droughts led to increased cover of grass, upland, and woody species, particularly at the shallower wetland margins. Conversely, reinundation and
longer hydroperiods resulted in expansion of aquatic and emergent species and reduced the cover of flood-intolerant woody and upland species.
These semi-permanent Upper Coastal Plain bays generally exhibited cyclic vegetation dynamics in response to climate fluctuation, with wet
periods favoring dominance by herbaceous species. Large basin morphology and deep ponding, paired with surrounding upland forest dominated
by floodintolerant pines, were features contributing to persistence of herbaceous vegetation. Drought cycles may promote directional succession
to forest in bays that are smaller, shallower, or colonized by flood tolerant hardwoods.
In the abstract above, the introduction is abstracted in green, methods in
orange, findings in blue, discussion (implications) in purple. The
proportion of the abstract allocated to each section will vary according to
the article.
Read this abstract. Do you have a fair understanding of the problem and
what was done to address it? You may want to do a little internet
searching or other research to fully understand the abstract.
The next section of the paper is the Introduction. In many journals this section is
not given a title. As its name implies, this section presents the background
knowledge necessary for the reader to understand why the findings of the paper are
an advance on the knowledge in the field.
Typically, the Introduction describes first the accepted state of knowledge in a
specialized field; then it focuses more specifically on a particular aspect, usually
describing a finding or set of findings that led directly to the work described in the
paper. If the authors are testing a hypothesis, the source of that hypothesis is spelled
out, findings are given with which it is consistent, and one or more predictions are
given.
In some papers, one or several major conclusions of the paper are presented at the
end of this section, so that the reader knows the major answers to the questions just
posed. Papers more descriptive or comparative in nature may begin with an
introduction to an area which interests the authors, or the need for a broader
database.
Often, the research problem or questions are stated at the end of the introduction.
Look for these specific statements or ones from which you can determine the
research question(s). Middle school students are learning to identify research
questions and this is one of their science education standards, therefore it is crucial
that you understand the research question or questions addressed in the paper and
can clearly state them. See example on the next slide.
USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR-184. 2002. 741
Phytophthora ramorum and Sudden OakDeath in California: II. Transmission and
Survival
Jennifer M. Davidson,2 David M. Rizzo,3 Matteo Garbelotto,4
Steven Tjosvold,5 and Garey W. Slaughter3
Abstract would be placed here. For the purposes of this exercise, we will just read
the Introduction now. The Introduction is on this slide and the next one.
Introduction
The newly described Phytophthora ramorum canker disease of oak (Sudden
Oak Death Syndrome) threatens millions of acres of California woodlands where
coast live oak (Quercus agrifolia), tanoak (Lithocarpus densiflorus), or black oak
(Quercus kelloggii) are dominant species (Garbelotto and others 2001,
McPherson and others 2000). An important step in controlling this disease
involves understanding how it is spread, both on a small scale between oak
trees in an infected area, and over a larger scale from infected to uninfected
woodlands. Transmission consists of spore production, movement of spores,
and infection of a new individual. Knowledge of the necessary conditions for
each of these steps may help us establish barriers to the spread of infection
within a single park or between geographically separated host plant ranges such
as the Coastal mountains and the Sierra Nevada of California.
Introduction Continued…
Phytophthora species generally reproduce through both dormant (resting) spores, as well as
rapidly produced fruiting bodies (sporangia) that contain swimming spores (zoospores). Dormant
spores may either be sexual (oospores) or asexual (chlamydospores) (Erwin and Ribeiro 1996).
The production of sporangia generally requires very high humidity, and therefore, will be strongly
affected by seasonal temperatures and rainfall (Duniway 1983). Survival of all spore types will
also be affected by temperature and moisture (Duniway 1983). In addition, production and
viability of spores may differ on each host species. Once produced on or within the host plant,
spores may spread via rain, soil, stream water, or movement of the infected plant itself.
Movement of plant material may include infected nursery stock, firewood, or timber. Transport of
soil containing propagules may occur on shoes of hikers, tires of trucks and mountain bikes, or
the feet of animals. Movement of spores in stream water may allow for long-distance transport,
depending on viability of spores in water, and the potential of spores to move from stream water
to the susceptible parts of host plants (Hansen and others 2000). Rain splash has been shown to
move Phytophthora spores of other species over several meters (Ristaino and Gumpertz 2000),
making this a potentially effective means of local transport, especially for spores requiring
moisture for production and survival. The mode of transmission for P. ramorum among California
oaks is complicated by the presence of many other host plant species in the forest. Currently, the
host list includes 10 non-oak plant species in five plant families (Rizzo and others 2002). These
other hosts may serves as sources of inoculum and act as infectious links among oak trees. In
addition, nursery stock of host plant species, such as rhododendron, can serve as vectors of
disease when moved for landscaping. In this paper, we provide data on the types of spores
produced by P. ramorum under laboratory and natural host plant conditions. We also document
the seasonality of spore production in recovery from rainwater, soil, and stream water. Finally, we
use survival of zoospores and chlamydospores in the laboratory in water, and on dry and moist
filter paper to simulate viability of spores in stream water, and under moisture extremes on solid
substrates, such as litter or soil.
The next section of most papers is the Materials and Methods. In some
journals this section is the last one. Its purpose is to describe the materials
used in the experiments and the methods by which the experiments were
carried out. In principle, this description should be detailed enough to allow
other researchers to replicate the work. In practice, these descriptions are often
highly compressed, and they often refer back to previous papers by the
authors.
One of the Natural Inquirer’s goals is to help students learn the scientific
process. Therefore, this section of the paper is important. Although a Natural
Inquirer article rarely describes the statistical or other analysis in detail, the
general aspects of the methodology are presented. Middle school students
should be learning about variables, observation techniques, data collection
and recording, and simple analyses.
As you read the methods section, look for the general story of how the
variables were defined, the data collected, and the general type of analysis
used. This includes what the variables were and how they were defined (and
quantified, measured, or identified); and how, when, and where data were
collected. A sample Methods section follows on the next slide.
Methods
Movement of Spores
During the isolation of P. ramorum from 93 oak and tanoak trees, field observations of the position of cankers on trees and
the location of infected trees with respect to topography were used to gain insight into the mechanisms of spore movement,
whether above ground, moved in soil, or carried by rain runoff or streams. Location of infection on 20 bay trees and 6
rhododendron bushes also was noted. Recovery of spores was attempted from rainwater, soil, litter, and stream water in a
time series spanning the winter rains and the drying summer months.
Rainwater
Raintraps were used to collect rainwater in a coast live oak woodland at Fairfield Osborn Preserve in Sonoma Co. Both
coast live oak and bay trees were infected with P. ramorum at this site. Raintraps consisted of a 165 cm by 75 cm vinyl
sheet stretched over a pvc frame and folded into a funnel with a 4 liter collecting jar at the bottom. Traps were set up on
February 2, 2001 and used to collect rainfall through winter, and for one unusually late rain on June 27-28. Two traps were
placed 0.5 m in front of cankers on each of 7 oak trees, for a total of 14 traps. Previous isolations confirmed that the cankers
were caused by P. ramorum infection. Two “distant” traps were placed at a distance of 5 m from all infected oak trees. Four
additional “distant” traps were installed on March 15, 2001. Although separated from infected oaks, “distant” traps still were
under the forest canopy, which consisted mainly of bay trees. Rain water was collected at approximately 2-day intervals
during a storm event. Rainwater was stored overnight at 4-5 °C to allow spores to settle. One liter of water was suctioned off
of the bottom of containers and filtered through a Millipore 3 ì cellulose esterase filter to capture all spore types. The filter
was then cut into strips and placed filtrate side down on selective medium plates. After 7 days, strips were removed, and
colonies of P. ramorum were counted.
Soil
Beginning in March, 2001, soil and litter were collected on a monthly basis from around the base of 15 diseased oak trees at
the Fairfield Osborn Preserve to test for the presence of P. ramorum. Previous isolations confirmed that all trees were
infected by P. ramorum. At the base of each tree on the infected side, soil was collected in zip-lock bags from three separate
spots and pooled to equal 500 g. Litter was collected at three spots to fill one-fourth the volume of a gallon zip-lock bag. A
green d’anjou pear was pressed into the soil or litter in each sample so that one-third of the pear was immersed, and diH20
was added to the sample until one-half of the pear was immersed in water. Samples were allowed to sit for 6 days at 18-23
°C. Pears were then removed, washed, and monitored for signs of Phytophthora lesions. Tissue from likely lesions was
plated on PARP selective medium to verify P. ramorum presence.
The third section is usually Results or Findings. This section describes the
experiments and the reasons they were done. Generally, the logic of the
Results section follows directly from that of the Introduction. That is, the
Introduction poses the questions addressed in the early part of Results.
Beyond this point, the organization of Results differs from one paper to
another. In some papers, the results are presented without extensive
discussion, which is reserved for the following section. This is appropriate
when the data in the early parts do not need to be interpreted extensively to
understand why the later experiments were done. In other papers, results are
given, and then they are interpreted, perhaps taken together with other
findings not in the paper, so as to give the logical basis for later experiments.
In a Natural Inquirer article, the “Results” section typically presents the results
of the analysis only. Interpretation is reserved for the following section. This is
true even if the scientific article being rewritten uses a different format.
The example below and all examples from this article are not
reproduced in their entirety. This article resulted in the Natural Inquirer
article “Moving Spore-adically” from the Invasive Species edition.
Results
Movement of Spores
Field Observations
Observations suggest that spores of P. ramorum were aerially dispersed. Of the 93 oak and tanoak trees
from which P. ramorum was isolated, none had cankers below the root crown. Cankers on one tanoak
were as high as 20 m. Of the six rhododendrons sampled, all infection was in the leaves or stems. Of 20
bays sampled, all successful isolation was from leaves, although lesions were present on some terminal
twigs. Infections on oaks were observed from sea level to 800 m and at all elevational positions on
hillsides ranging from valleys to ridgetops. Infection did not strictly follow water courses.
Raintraps
Rainwater contained viable spores of P. ramorum (fig. 1). At some point during the sampling period, P.
ramorum was recovered from rain captured in traps placed at all seven of the coast live oaks. This
rainwater was a combination of throughfall rain, drip from the canopy, and splash from the trunk.
Propagule counts were low, but present in rainwater from these traps at each of the collection periods
except for the brief summer storm in late June (0.5 inches rainfall). Spore counts were variable from tree to
tree, and ranged from 0.25-7 spores per liter in positive samples from traps placed at the oak trees. Of the
six “distant” traps placed under the forest canopy but 5 m away from infected oak trees, two were positive
for P. ramorum during the sampling period. Soil and litter also contained viable propagules of P. ramorum.
During March, 3 of 15 soil samples and 1 of 15 litter samples tested positive. During April, no soil samples
tested positive, and only 1 of 15 litter samples tested positive. During May, no litter samples tested
positive, and only 1 of 15 soil samples tested positive. The positive May sample was from the same tree
as the positive April sample. In June and July, all samples were negative.
The fourth section is the Discussion or Implications.
This section serves several purposes. First, the data in the paper are interpreted;
that is, they are analyzed to show what the authors believe the data show. Any
limitations to the interpretations should be acknowledged, and fact should clearly
be separated from speculation.
Second, the findings of the paper are related to other findings in the field. This
serves to show how the findings contribute to knowledge, or correct the errors of
previous work. As stated, some of these logical arguments are often found in the
Results when it is necessary to clarify why later experiments were carried out.
Although you might argue that in this case the discussion material should be
presented in the Introduction, more often you cannot grasp its significance until
the first part of Results is given.
In a Natural Inquirer article, this section varies widely. Because some topics are
controversial or at least debatable, stay close to the article’s text and resist the
urge to insert personal opinion. In the Natural Inquirer, this section is now always
identified as “Discussion.”
Although most environmental education guidelines suggest an “action”
component, it is usually unwise to suggest an action in a Natural Inquirer article.
Remember, the Natural Inquirer presents science. Students should be left to
determine on their own how they will use their new information. (More on this later
in the course!)
Discussion
Current data suggest that P. ramorum, the causal agent of “sudden oak death,” may have been introduced to northern
California approximately a decade ago (Garbelotto and others 2001, Garbelotto and others 2002, McPherson and others
2000). Today, the range of the pathogen covers over 600 km, from Big Sur into southern Oregon. This rate of spread
surpasses that of Chestnut Blight in the early part of the 20th century (Anagnostakis 1987). Our data on transmission and
survival of P. ramorum provide preliminary insight into the mechanisms underlying this remarkable spread.
The rapid production of spores on foliar hosts, such as bay and rhododendron, may be key to the spread of P. ramorum
within a locality, and perhaps between different geographic locations. P. ramorum produced sporangia on moistened leaves
of both bay and rhododendron, the two foliar hosts tested. Chlamydospores were also noted on infected bay leaves. In
addition, we have observed chlamydospores on infected rhododendron leaves in moist chambers for other experiments.
While rhododendrons are not major components of most California forests, bay trees are dominant species in many coast
live oak forest types. Consistent with laboratory results on spore production, evidence from the field suggests that
inoculum from bay trees may be very important in vectoring P. ramorum to oaks. Swiecki and Bernhardt (2001) found a
significant association between infected oaks and the presence of bay trees. Rainwater traps in this study placed 5 m from
infected oaks contained viable spores that may have come from overstory infected bay trees. Furthermore, we often
observe an increase in Phytophthora-like leaf spots on bays growing within oak infection centers. To further investigate the
importance of bay as an inoculum source, studies are underway to determine temperature requirements for sporangia
production on bay leaves, the viability of P. ramorum in leaves attached to trees or fallen in litter, and the distance spores
can travel from bay leaves. The negative results of spore production on oak bark cankers or in bleeding sap require further
investigation. Rapid contamination of oak cankers by fungal species may have prevented sporulation of P. ramorum. In
addition, the seasonal state of the bark may not have been conducive to spore production at the time of the test (Brasier
and Kirk 2001). However, successful amplification of P. ramorum DNA from bleeding sap (Garbelotto and others 2002),
suggests the presence of propagules and underscores the need for additional isolation attempts from sap. Viable spores of
P. ramorum were shown to be carried in rainwater, soil, litter, and stream water. The presence of diseased oaks at all
elevations on hillsides and the above-ground nature of the disease suggest wind-blown rain or rain splash as a common
mechanism for movement of spores. The abundance of viable propagules exhibited a distinct seasonality, peaking in
March and early April of 2001, a low rainfall year. Production of sporangia by other Phytophthora species depends on high
moisture levels (Duniway 1983). Hence, the presence of moisture from rain on infected plant tissue is probably necessary
for production of spores that eventually end up in soil, litter, or stream water. Generally increasing levels of inoculum in
rainwater in early April, and the lack of spores in the isolated, 2-day June rain, may suggest that a time of prolonged
moisture is needed for inoculum buildup. Warming temperatures in early April during the period of consistent rainfall may
also have contributed to the peak in spore production. Failure to recover P. ramorum from soil and litter in the summer
months may indicate that seasonal drying is sufficient to reduce viability of spores in these substrates.
Finally, papers usually have a short Acknowledgements section, in which
various contributions of other workers are recognized, followed by a Reference
list giving references to papers and other works cited in the text.
Papers also contain several Figures and Tables. These contain data described in
the paper. The figures and tables also have legends, whose purpose is to give
details of the particular experiment or experiments shown there. Typically, if a
procedure is used only once in a paper, these details are described in Materials
and Methods, and the Figure or Table legend refers back to that description.
If a procedure is used repeatedly, however, a general description is given in
Materials and Methods, and the details for a particular experiment are given in the
Table or Figure legend.
Middle school students should be learning how to read and construct tables
and figures. The figures and tables given in a scientific paper must often be
simplified. It is important, however, to identify and ultimately use the
educational potential offered by an article’s figures and tables.
Here is figure 1 from the article you’ve been examining. Note that both the X
and Y axis are labeled, and the figure has a caption.
Figure 1. Mean number of P. ramorum spores per liter of rainwater (+ standard
error) for storms occurring from February through June, 2001 at the Fairfield
Osborn Preserve, Sonoma Co. Means were based on the average from two
collecting traps at each of seven coast live oak trees.
Variations on the organization of a paper
In most scientific journals, the above format is followed. Occasionally, the Results
and Discussion are combined, in cases in which the data need extensive
discussion to allow the reader to follow the train of logic developed in the course of
the research. As stated, in some journals, Materials and Methods follows the
Discussion. In certain older papers, the Summary is given at the end of the paper.
Regardless of the organizational variations in a scientific paper, the Natural
Inquirer ALWAYS follows the described format (Introduction, Method, Findings,
Discussion). If you need a refresher, examine a Natural Inquirer article.
This is done for one important reason: Reading scientific papers is difficult. If
students understand the organization of a paper, they can more easily read and
comprehend. If every Natural Inquirer article is organized similarly, students will
have more success in comprehension.
Think about reading a newspaper. You know its organization and this facilitates
your comprehension.
This is the reason one of the Natural Inquirer’s criteria for selecting a scientific
paper is that it follows the standard format exactly, or so closely that as you
rewrite, you can easily organize your writing into the standard sections.
You are now familiar with the anatomy of a scientific paper.
Now, how should such a paper be read?
Before we begin, there is one thing you should know: You
will read your scientific paper many times before you
begin writing! The first few times you read, therefore, do
not worry about writing.
The following information is from
http://hampshire.edu/~apmNS/design/RESOURCES/HOW_READ.html
How to Read a Scientific Research Paper—
a four-step guide
Ann McNeal, School of Natural Science, Hampshire College, Amherst MA
01002
Reading research papers ("primary articles") is partly
a matter of experience and skill, and partly learning
the specific vocabulary of a field. First of all, DON'T
PANIC! If you approach it step by step, even an
impossible-looking paper can be understood.
Begin by following these steps….
1. Skim. Skim the paper quickly, noting basics like headings, figures and the like.
This takes just a few minutes. You're not trying to understand it yet, but just to
get an overview.
2. Vocabulary. Go through the paper word by word and line by line, underlining or
highlighting every word and phrase you don't understand. Don't worry if
there are a lot places with underlining; you're still not trying to make sense of
the article.
After skimming the paper and noting words and phrases you
do not understand, it is helpful to read the paper again,
noting the things that you DO understand. You may underline
or highlight the text, then write a clarifying note in the margin.
In the “Introduction,” for example, restate the problem and
the research question(s) in the margin or in your notebook. In
the “Methods” section, restate pieces of the method,
paragraph by paragraph.
Over the next few “readings” of the paper, your task is to
identify what you do and do not understand about the
research.
Now you have several things you might do with these vocabulary and concept
questions, depending upon the kind of question each is. You can:
Look up simple words and phrases. Often the question is simply vocabulary-what's a lateral malleolus, or a christa, or the semilunar valve. A medical or
biological dictionary is a good place to look for definitions. A textbook of
physiology or anatomy may be a good source, because it gives more
complete explanations. Your ordinary shelf dictionary may not be a good
source, because the definitions may not be precise enough or may not reflect
the way in which scientists use a word (for example "efficiency" has a
common definition, but the physical definition is much more restricted.)
Sources for environmental words or phrases:
•One of the best sources for environmental information is G.Tyler Miller’s (2007)
book Environmental Science and Living in the Environment (2006). The cost is
about $123 but well worth the investment. I use this book virtually every time I
write an article.
•Search web sites (with .edu and .gov extensions if possible) for clarification. Be
sure to triangulate. That is, search more than one source and critically compare.
•Science dictionaries and student science dictionaries.
In reading science to write Natural Inquirer articles, it is appropriate to use a
regular dictionary if needed. It is important to understand a word’s meaning,
regardless of whether it is a scientific or a non-scientific term.
A regular dictionary will also come in handy when you want to simplify a word for
your written article, and when you need to use diacritical marks. More on that
later!
In some instances, you may eventually
need to contact the scientist who did the
research, or a scientist in the same field
of study. While this is acceptable, it is
best to do as much self-directed research
in advance as possible. That way, if you
must contact a scientist with a question,
your question will be well-informed and
you will get more from the scientist’s
explanation. In addition, the scientist will
appreciate your basic understanding of
terms and concepts, and the effort you
made to understand his or her research.
Greg Aplet, from the Wilderness Benefits edition
The two tips given below are critical strategies for understanding a scientific
paper and identifying major concepts for inclusion in a Natural Inquirer article.
Note that while you may not use the scientific word or phrase in your rewritten
article (opting for a simpler term), you must understand what is being presented
in the scientific article.
Get an understanding from the context in which an unknown word or
phrase is used. Often words that are used to describe the procedures used in
an experiment can be understood from the context, and may be very specific to
the paper you are reading. Examples are the "lithium-free control group" in a rat
experiment or the "carotene extraction procedure" in a biochemical experiment.
Of course, you should be careful when deciding that you understand a word
from its context, because it might not mean what you think.
Flag this phrase as belonging to one of the major concepts of the paper-it's bigger than a vocabulary question. For example, a paper about diet and
cancer might refer to "risk reduction," which you would need to understand in
context and in some depth.
The first two strategies, which we have just covered, are 1) skim and 2)
vocabulary. Now, let’s focus on comprehension.
3. Comprehension, section by section. Deal with all the words and
phrases, although a few technical terms in the Methods section might
remain. Now go back and read the whole paper, section by section, for
comprehension.
In the Introduction, note how the context is set. What larger question is
this a part of? The author should summarize and comment on previous
research, and you should distinguish between previous research and
the actual current study. What is the hypothesis or question being
addressed in the paper?
In the Methods, try to get a clear picture of what was done at each step.
What was actually measured? It is a good idea to make an outline
and/or sketch of the procedures and instruments. Keep notes of your
questions; some of them may be simply technical, but others may point
to more fundamental considerations that you will use for reflection and
criticism below.
In Results look carefully at the figures and tables, as they are the heart
of most papers. A scientist will often read the figures and tables before
deciding whether it is worthwhile to read the rest of the article! What
does it mean to "understand" a figure? You understand a figure when
you can redraw it and explain it in plain English words.
The Discussion contains the conclusions that the author would like to
draw from the data. In some papers, this section has a lot of
interpretation and is very important. In any case, this is usually where the
author reflects on the work and its meaning in relation to other findings
and to the field in general.
Note that you have not yet begun to rewrite the article. The goal at this
point is to clearly understand what you are reading. Understanding a
scientific article, especially when you are not an expert in the discipline, is
hard work. It takes perseverance. Remember, take it one step at a time.
4. Reflection and criticism. After you understand the article and can
summarize it, then you can return to broader questions and draw your own
conclusions. It is very useful to keep track of your questions as you go along,
returning to see whether they have been answered. Often, the simple questions
may contain the seeds of very deep thoughts about the work--for example, "Why
did the authors use a questionnaire at the end of the month to find out about
premenstrual tension? Wouldn't subjects forget or have trouble recalling?"
Such questioning will help you develop meaningful Reflection Questions.
By now, you should be able to tell a friend or
colleague about this research, including information
from all four sections. At this point, you are ready to
begin thinking about how to rewrite the article for a
middle school audience.
But BEFORE you do that, there is one
more important step in this process…..
Go through your article at least one more time. This time, however, you must do
so with the following in mind:
1. What is it like to be an adolescent? Put yourself into an adolescent’s frame
of reference and their stage of development. To be successful at writing for
adolescents, you must try to think like you did when you were 13, but with
the knowledge and wisdom you currently possess. What would be
interesting about this article to a 13 year old? What information can connect
this article to their everyday life?
2. What science education standards can educators address through this
article? Write them down as you identify them.
3. In particular, what science process and science content standards may be
addressed through this article? Note that some of them may not be obvious.
4. How can critical thinking be encouraged through the presentation of this
article? What are some who, what, when, where, how, and why questions?
You must now read your article with all of the above in mind. This is
difficult to do and will require practice. Tips for success include…..
Tips for Success
• Use a different color pen and write in the margins of the paper (or in
your notebook) when you identify a relevant word, phrase, sentence,
or idea.
• In the Introduction, identify the problem and research question(s).
State them simply in your own words.
• In the Methods section, identify the steps taken by the scientists.
What were the variables studied? Which was the dependent variable
and what were the independent variables? How were they
measured? Was technology used? How were the data collected?
Where did the study occur? Etc…..
• In the Findings section, identify the findings at the most simplistic
level.
• In the Discussion section, look for the relevance of the findings in
relation to the original problem or question(s).
At this point, it should be clear that many if not most scientific articles will be
too complex to present all of the information in the article.
To address this problem…..
…recognize that there are numerous “storylines”
embedded in most scientific articles. Some articles may
clearly state only one storyline, but this is rare.
You must decide on ONE (only ONE) storyline on which to
focus. If you choose more than one, realize that you are
doubling or tripling the complexity of the reading and
comprehension task. This is not advisable.
If your article is part of a journal, the storyline you choose
should fit the broad theme of the journal. If your article is a
stand-alone monograph, you have more freedom to choose.
Once you have selected a storyline, resist the urge to
put non-relevant information into your text, regardless
of how important you think it is. If the article is too
complex, students will lose interest or be unable to
comprehend.
A key to a successful Natural Inquirer article
is its adherence to ONE STORYLINE. You
must decide what to leave out as much as
you decide what to put in.
POP QUIZ: What is a key to a
successful Natural Inquirer article?
Other things to consider as you read your article again…..
•Look for opportunities to introduce Number Crunches,
maps, map reading, geography skills, and Reflection
Questions.
•Look for opportunities to help students relate to their own
experience. These can all be noted in the margin of your
paper or in your notebook.
•Remember to integrate the variety of disciplines discussed
earlier, including language arts, math, geography, social
studies, visual arts, etc.
In an article comparing the production of wood and steel
doors, for example, energy was expressed in gigajoules.
The following notes show how gigajoules were translated
into a unit to which students could relate.
In this case, the question was
how to represent gigajoules in
a way that students could
understand.
Information about gigajoules
was retrieved from various
web sites.
This led to research on
kilowatts and calories, two
units of measurement more
familiar to students.
Marginal notes were made
right on the article.
The next slide brings you a
little closer.
The following two slides show
how gigajoules was
represented in the final text.
From upcoming Energy Edition, “Which Do You A-door?”
The amount of energy used in the manufacture of a steel door and a
wood door was measured in gigajoules (gig uh julz) (table 3). One
gigajoule is equal to about 278 kilowatt hours, or 238,000 nutritional
calories. The joule is a member of the international system of units
(SI), the modern form of the metric system.
Table 3. Total amount of energy, measured in gigajoules (GJ), used
in the manufacture of a wood door and a steel door.
Total energy (GJ)
Steel door
2.17
Wood door
0.10
From upcoming Energy Edition, “Which Do You A-Door?” continued….
Number Crunches {Sidebar}
Let’s say that the average daily energy use in a home is 15 kilowatt hours
(kWh). How many days will it take before the amount of energy used in that
home is equal to the total amount of energy used to manufacture a steel
door? How many days will it take to equal the amount of energy used to
manufacture a wood door?
While doing vigorous exercise such as running, an adult burns about 100
nutritional calories each hour. How many hours will it take to burn 1
gigajoule of energy? How many days of vigorous exercise will it take the
adult to burn 1 gigajoule of energy? How many days of vigorous exercise
will it take for the adult to burn the amount of energy used in the production
of a steel door and a wood door?
- end of Number Crunches In this case, Number Crunches are used for four purposes: to help students
understand the value of gigajoules, to show the integration of math with
science, to give students practice in mathematics, and to relate gigajoules to
the student’s everyday life.
You are now ready to read your scientific article.
Remember the sections of a scientific paper relevant to the Natural Inquirer
include:
Introduction
Methods
Findings
Discussion
•First, skim your article all the way through.
•Skim your article again, this time noting unfamiliar words, terms, and phrases.
•Define unfamiliar words, terms, and phrases using Miller (2007), reliable web
sites, science dictionaries, textbooks, regular dictionaries, etc.
•Read your article again carefully, this time for initial comprehension and
meaning.
•Place newly defined words, phrases, and sentences into context.
•Identify the major concepts of the paper.
•Read your article again. This time note the problem and research question(s)
from the Introduction; the general methods of data collection and analysis
used from the Methods section; the findings from the Findings section; and
any implications or other observations from the Discussion section. You can
write this in the paper’s margins or on a separate sheet in your notebook.
•During this same reading, begin to note educational opportunities, such as
ideas for Thinking About Science, Thinking About the Environment, Number
Crunches, sidebars, opportunities to relate the research to the students’
everyday lives. This can be done by highlighting and making marginal notes.
•During this same reading, begin to note possible storylines.
•Based on your notes from this reading, decide on one storyline. Write this
down. (Note: The preferred storyline may or may not become clear
immediately, even after your second or third reading.)
•Read your article again, focusing on your chosen storyline. Highlight
information that relates to the storyline, omit information not relevant to your
chosen storyline.
•You may need to give yourself time between readings.
•As you read this time, keep the following in mind:
1. What is it like to be an adolescent? Put yourself into an
adolescent’s frame of reference and their stage of development.
To be successful at writing for adolescents, you must try to think
like you did when you were 13, but with the knowledge and
wisdom you currently possess. How can you connect the article to
their everyday life?
2. What science process and science content standards may be
addressed through this article? Note that some of them may not
be obvious. This is particularly true for science process standards.
3. How can critical thinking be encouraged through the presentation
of this article?
• Make notes on each of the above points, either in the margin, on
the back of the article pages, or in your notebook.
•Continue the process of note taking relevant to your storyline until you
are relatively certain of your story.
•Remember that when you write, you will stay as close to the actual text
as possible, but will write at a 7th grade level.
Why stay as close to the actual article text as possible?
According to Ann McNeal, Hampshire College:
There are many advantages to having students [sic] read primary
literature (Epstein, 1972):
•Articles have a vividness that is seldom found in a text, so students
get excited by them.
•Articles lend themselves to critical, analytical thinking.
•Students feel smart and powerful when they read original sources.
•Articles reveal the scientific process far better than secondary
sources.
This is the end of session 10. (Finally!)
Congratulations!
•You should now have a scientific paper filled with highlighting,
underlining, and margin notes; or a notebook filled with notes and
ideas.
•You know your storyline, and you know what to include and what to
leave out.
•You know what opportunities your article presents to connect 7th
graders to the science, help teachers address educational standards,
critical thinking skills, and to integrate other disciplines.
•You understand most if not all of the scientific words, terms, and
phrases in your article.
In Session 11, we’ll begin writing!