Making your Paragraphs
Flow
Coherence and Cohesion in
Academic Essays
An essay is coherent (it ‘sticks
together’) if:
• Its parts are unified (eg the
paragraphs are about the same main
idea)
• The essay seems logical (1 part flows
into the other)
Transitions
‘Cohesion devices are words and phrases
within a sentence, between sentences in a
paragraph, and between paragraphs that
unite the paragraph or essay (…). These
words or short phrases establish
relationships between parts of sentences,
between sentences, between topic sentences
and thesis statements, and between
paragraphs’. (Reid 2000, 116)
4 common cohesion techniques
1.Pronouns
2.This/these + noun
3.Paragraph Hooks
4.Signposts
Using Pronouns to signal transition within
and between sentences
• ‘When James came to N.T.U., he
found that people were more friendly
than he had anticipated’.
• ‘Students should read more if they
wish to get good marks. However,
they are often working during times
when they should be reading’.
Using ‘this/these + summary word or phrase’ to
signal transition between sentences
• ‘ESL lecturers know that students need to
understand the difference between formal and
informal language. However, this
understanding cannot usually be acquired
quickly’.
• ‘In recent years the number of students applying to
Ph.D. programs has increased steadily, while the
number of places has remained constant. This
situation has resulted in intense competition
for admission’.
Using ‘this/these + summary word or phrase’ to
signal transition between paragraphs
‘A further criticism often levelled at
postmodernism is that it gives us no way of
distinguishing between ‘good’ and ‘bad’ forms of
knowledge. (Paragraph continues for another 4
sentences).
This criticism of postmodernism is,
perhaps, based on a misunderstanding of
‘responsibility’.
(Steans and Pettiford 2001, 149).
Paragraph Hooks: Repeating Key Words
or Phrases within Paragraphs
‘Atmospheric air pollution of our
environment has occurred for centuries, but
has become a significant health problem
only within the last century. Air pollution
contributes to respiratory disease and to
lung cancer in particular. Other health
problems directly related to air pollutants
include heart disease, eye irritation and
severe allergies’. (Reid 2000, 116)
Paragraph Hooks: the Repetition of Key
words or Phrases between Paragraphs
(…) dependency theory can be considered a
variant of structuralist thought because it
suggests that we can only understand (…)
the world economy in relation to the world
economic system as a whole.
Dependency theory can also be
considered a form of economic
determinism. (Steans and Pettiford 2001, 81).
Signposts
Relate what you are going to say next
with what you have said previously.
(Basically, you are telling the reader
what you are doing /where you are
going) .
When might you use a signpost?
•
•
•
•
•
To show:
Explanation: That is, …
Addition: In addition to this, …
Cause – Effect: Consequently, …
Conclusion/Summation– In sum,…
Counter-argument – However, …
Group Task 1: What other signposts do you
know which tell your reader you are:
1. Explaining something further
2. Adding to a point
3. Explaining the causes and/or
implications of a point
4. Summarizing or concluding a
point
5. Presenting a counter-argument?
Transitions Between & Within
Paragraphs
• Explanation:
in essence, in other words,
namely, that is, that is to
say, in short, specifically,
for instance, for example
• Addition:
also, furthermore, in
addition, moreover, at the
same time, in fact, indeed
• Cause -effect:
for this reason,
accordingly, as a result,
consequently, as a
consequence, hence,
otherwise, therefore, thus,
Summarizing:
briefly, on the whole, in
short, in summary, in sum,
on balance, to sum up, to
summarize, finally
When might you use a signpost?
To show:
• Comparison – Similarly, …
• Contrast – Conversely, …
• Sequence – First, …; second,
…; third, …
When might you use a signpost?
• Contrast
conversely, instead,
on one hand, on the other
hand, on the contrary,
rather, yet, but, however,
still, nevertheless,
nonetheless, in contrast,
on the contrary
• Comparison:
Similarly, likewise, in
much the same way,
compared to
• Sequence:
at first, first of all, to begin
with, in the first place, at
the same time, in turn,
next, then, while, earlier,
simultaneously, in
conclusion
Further Reading
• Reid, Joy (2000) The Process of Composition, New York:
Longman
• Crème, P. and Lea, M. R. (1997) Writing at University : a
Guide for Students, Buckingham: Open University Press,
131-3
• Uvic Writer’s site on transitions:
http://web.uvic.ca/wguide/Pages/ParagraphTransitions.htm
l
• http://www.uefap.co.uk/writing/parag/parag.htm
• http://www.ssdd.uce.ac.uk/learner/writing/writingframe.ht
m
Task (See handout)
How do the following authors ensure
that their paragraphs flow well?
Underline and explain the cohesion
devices they use.
The extract is from Steans, J. and
Pettiford, L. (2001), International
Relations: Perspectives and Themes,
London: Longman, 152
Feminist Thought
Most definitions of feminism centre on the demand for
equality between the sexes or equal rights for women. For
this reason, students new to the study of feminism and IR
often assume that it is about women. As we will see
below, feminists do have much to say on the subject of
sexual equality and women’s rights. However, this narrow
definition does not fully reflect the richness and breadth of
feminist thought. Equality and equal rights issues have
never been the sole focus of feminism. Furthermore, as
with other perspectives, there are different ‘strands’ of
feminist thought and this is reflected within what might be
broadly termed ‘feminist International relations’.
Feminist Thought (cont.)
In this chapter, we do not intend to gloss over the
differences in feminist thought completely. On the
contrary, we emphasise the different intellectual
roots of feminist thought in the origins section
and, periodically, we draw your attention to
differences within feminist thought in the sections
on assumptions and themes, when it is useful and
appropriate to do so. However, as in other
chapters, our aim here is to simplify as much as
possible. At this stage we will only try to
Feminist Thought (cont.)
provide you with a basic vocabulary which will
equip you to undertake more in-depth study. While
standpoint feminist and postmodern feminist ideas
are drawn upon throughout the chapter, for the
most part the discussion is informed by liberal and
critical feminisms. However, we hope that, in his
way, by the en of this chapter, you will have some
sense of the nuances of feminist thought and its
overall critique of traditional approaches to IR.
Questioning Academic Discourse Vivian Zamel
http://www.nyu.edu/education/teachlearn/ifte/zamel2.htm
The tendency to categorize academic discourse and the
discourses of particular communities can lead to theoretical
frameworks and instructional models that oversimplify our
understanding of academic work and reduce it to a fixed
idea that does not reflect reality. One illustration of that
reality is Walvoord and McCarthy's (1990) rich and
detailed naturalistic study in which the authors
collaborated with faculty across four disciplines, collecting
observational notes, examining assignments and drafts of
student writing, conducting interviews with teachers and
students, and studying logs kept by teachers and students.
Questioning Academic Discourse Vivian Zamel (2)
Underlying this study is the assumption that "language
processes must be understood in terms of the contexts in
which they occur" (p. 21) (…). This study reveals the
complex array of factors, such as individual teachers'
methods, intentions, and expectations and individual
students' approaches to and interpretations of assignments,
which shape the work of these classrooms and often give
rise to the difficulties students experience as they struggle
to meet their teachers' expectations. Importantly, by
examining these factors within each classroom, these
teachers come to understand the (…) critical role that
writing plays in helping students learn about the work of
academic disciplines.