“Fisheries and Food Security” in
Southeast Asia:
Issues and Challenges
Len R. Garces
NTS-Asia Course for Indonesian Lecturers, Police Doctors & NGO Leaders
22-24 August 2007, RSIS/NTU - Singapore
people  science  environment  partners
Presentation Outline
 Overview of Fisheries in SEA and their Importance
 Fisheries Conflicts between SSF and LSF based on a
Case Studies in SEA
 Strategies for Managing Conflicts and Fishing Capacity
 Policy Recommendations & Future Research
people  science  environment  partners
Fisheries: role
Trade
Human
health
Poverty
alleviation
Livelihoods
Food
security
Development
Ecosystem
functions
Alternative
uses
Biodiversity
Ecosystem
health
Species
status
people  science  environment  partners
Trends in Fish Consumption
Per capita consumption doubled from 7.3 kg to 14 kg
during 1973-1997
Share of global fish consumption (1973-1997)
1973
Developed
countries
55%
1997
China
11%
Developed
countries
31%
Developing
countries
excluding
China
34%
Developing
countries
excluding
China
33%
people  science  environment  partners
China
36%
Fish Consumption in SEA
Country
Per capita fish
consumption
(kg/year)
Fish as % of
animal protein
Fish as % of total
animal protein
Thailand
32.4
40.5
17.6
Vietnam
17.9
31.6
7.7
Cambodia
28.4
56.5
16.8
Lao PDR
15.6
41.3
7.7
Myanmar
19.4
47.8
7
Malaysia
58.5
38.5
21
Philippines
29.8
41.1
17.5
Indonesia
21
58
11.1
Singapore
29.3
14.9
7.7
Brunei
23.1
16
7.6
people  science  environment  partners
Trends in Fish Production
Increasing Share of Developing Countries
Total Fish Production, 1950-2001
120,000,000
90
Total production (mt)
70
80,000,000
60
50
60,000,000
40
40,000,000
30
20
20,000,000
10
0
0
1950 1953 1956 1959 1962 1965 1968 1971 1974 1977 1980 1983 1986 1989 1992 1995 1998 2001
Year
Developed countries
Developing countries
% contribution of developing countries
Source: FishStat+ 2002
people  science  environment  partners
% Contribution of Developing
Countries
80
100,000,000
Shares of Fish Production by Continent
Total Fish Production 2001 (Million MT)
Asia
Africa
Europe
North & Central America
South America
Oceania
World
79
7
18
9
16
1
South America
12%
Oceania
1%
Europe
14%
Asia
60%
130
North and Central
America
7%
Africa
6%
Share of Fish Production in Asia
FAOSTAT 2004
Production
Million MT
West Asia Central Asia
2%
11%
South Asia
31%
China
56%
FAOSTAT 2004
Ave growth/yr
1992-2001 (%)
China
South Asia
West Asia
Central Asia
East &
Southeast Asia
44
9
2
0.1
14.30
4.43
3.23
-6.74
24
0.04
Asia
79
people  science  environment  partners
Trends in Fish Trade
•
Developing countries became net exporters
-
Value: 50% export, 15% import
-
Net export - increased from US$5 bil in 1980 to
US$16.5 bil in 1999
•
Fish trade represents a significant source of foreign
currency earnings
•
Trade liberalization through removing tariffs and
quotas
•
Non-tariff barriers (food safety regulations, quality
standards and leveling requirements) to become
major factor in trade
people  science  environment  partners
FISHERY SECTOR
ONE OF THE BIGGEST TRADE STORIES
Fish
22%
Beverage Crops
(Cocoa, Coffee, Tea)
12%
Sugar
8%
Cereals
14%
Oils and Oilseeds
17%
Milk & Milk Products
10%
Meat
17%
Global Export of Fish vs. Major Agricultural Food Products
Fish - highest share in global
agricultural commodity trade
people  science  environment  partners
Global Trend in Export of Fish vs.
Major Agricultural Food Products
70
60
Billion $
50
40
30
20
10
0
Beverage
Crops (Cocoa,
Cof f ee, Tea)
Sugar
Cereals
1998
Meat
1999
2000
Milk/Milk
Products
2001
2002
Trend is rising from 1998 - 2002
Value of fish export higher than a) meat,
b) cereals,
beverages
peoplec)
 science
 environment  partners
Oils and
Oilseeds
Fish
Fish Export by ASEAN Countries
Brunei,
Cambodia &
Laos
<1%
Myanmar
3%
Philippines
4%
Singapore
6%
Malaysia
7%
Vietnam
34%
Thailand
25%
Indonesia
21%
ASEAN Statistical Yearbook 2005
people  science  environment  partners
Trends in ASEAN Fish Export
3500
Brunei
3000
Cambodia
2500
Indonesia
2000
Malaysia
Myanmar
1500
Philippines
1000
Singapore
500
Thailand
Laos
19
93
19
94
19
95
19
96
19
97
19
98
19
99
20
00
20
01
20
02
20
03
20
04
0
ASEAN Statistical Yearbook 2005
people  science  environment  partners
Vietnam
ASEAN Fish Exports 2004
Fresh & chilled
Molluscs and
Live fish
fish
other aquatic
3%
6%
invertebrates
Frozen fish
13%
8%
Fillet & other
fish meat
11%
Crustaceans
Dried, salted
56%
and smoked
3%
Total Value of Export: US$6.2 Billion
ASEAN Statistical Yearbook 2005
people  science  environment  partners
Employment Opportunities
 Asia accounts for 87% of all
fisheries and aquaculture sector
South
North and
employees (~22 million)
America
Central
2%
Africa
 Statistics are difficult to obtain
Europe
2%
2%
 Number of people employed in
sector has doubled since 1970’s
Africa
7%
 Importance of upstream and
downstream activities
 Hatchery production and seed
supply for aquaculture particularly
Asia
important
87%
 Processing one of most important
Global share of employment in
multipliers, particularly for women
the fisheries and aquaculture
sector
people  science  environment  partners
people  science  environment  partners
Contribution of Fisheries to GDP
% GDP 2003
Agriculture
Fishery
Contribution of
fishery Sector
to agriculture
Brunei
2.1
0.5
24
Cambodia
36.8
10
27
Indonesia
15.4
2.4
16
Laos
60
3.2
5
Malaysia
8.1
1.0
12
Myanmar
55
7.3
13
Philippines
19.8
2.2
11
Singapore
0.1
nil
nil
Thailand
10.2
2.0
20
Vietnam
21.1
4.0
19
Countries
ASEAN Statistical Yearbook 2005
Fisheries: role
Trade
Human
health
Poverty
alleviation
Livelihoods
Food
security
Development
Ecosystem
functions
Alternative
uses
Biodiversity
Ecosystem
health
Species
status
people  science  environment  partners
Capture fisheries: Current status
Overexploited
stocks
Excess
capacity
Fishing down
the foodweb
Indonesia
Java Sea:
Coastal demersals
& small pelagics
Malaysia
Coastal demersals, Unlicensed vessels Changes in
small pelagics
dominant species
(WCPM) & prawns
Philippines
Coastal
demersals,
small pelagics
Thailand
GoT: demersals,
small pelagics &
prawns
Vietnam
Coastal resources, 3-fold Hp increase Increased bycatch
green mussels &
resulted in only 1.8 and small fish in
pearl oysters
fold CPUE
trawl catch
people

science

environment
 partners
increase
Java Sea:
86 – 207%
excess
capacity
Increasing trash
fish
20 – 30% reduction San Miguel Bay,
required
Lingayen Gulf
Excess capacity
documented
Gulf of
Thailand
Trash fish now
60% of catch
Degraded
habitats
Yes, 41%
mangrove area lost
Yes
Yes
Yes, 75%
mangrove area lost
Yes, 61%
mangrove area
lost
Capture fisheries: Current status
Resources are severely reduced
Malaysia: reduction in demersal inshore biomass
1972 – 1997
95%
92%
94%
(Talib et al. 2003
Sustainable
management
of coastal fisheries
in Asia
1998 – 2001)
86%
97%
98%
people  science  environment  partners
www.reefbase.org
Biomass distribution (1960s)
Preliminary – based on Ecopath models developed by
partners
Christensen
et al. 2003
people  science  environment  partners
Biomass distribution (1980s)
people  science  environment  partners
Capture Fisheries: role
Trade
Human
health
Poverty
alleviation
Livelihoods
Food
security
Development
Ecosystem
functions
Alternative
uses
Biodiversity
Ecosystem
health
Species
status
people  science  environment  partners
Key Challenges and Opportunities
Capture Fisheries:
Production from coastal capture fisheries declining
Fish stock are fish down to 5-30% (Silvestre et al., 2003)
Excess fishing capacity and habitat degradation
Aquaculture:
Growth rate in aquaculture production about 8.9%
Indonesia, Thailand and Vietnam are in the top 10 producers
BUT increasing demand for trash fish
Opportunities:
Offshore fisheries (tuna) – BUT maybe limited
Aquaculture - Improved feeding practices & species
CCRF & improved management
ASEAN Economic Integration – Markets & Food Safety
people  science  environment  partners
Why “Fish Fights over
Fish Rights”?
The study is about
Fights (disputes)
over
fishing ‘Rights’ (a legal,
equitable, or moral title
or claim to the
possession of property
or authority, the
enjoyment of privileges
or immunities that which
justly accrues or falls to
any one).
“Fish Fights over
Fish Rights”
is about
conflicts in fisheries
Source: Bennett (2000)
people  science  environment  partners
SSF vs LSF
(Source: SEAFDEC Fisheries Bulletin)
Country
Small-scale fishery
Large-scale fishery
Brunei Darussalam
Artisanal; boats up to 60 ft
(18.3 m) LOA (<3nm)
Indonesia
Small-scale: vessels <5
GT/10 HP engine (0–3 nm);
& <25 GT/50 HP engine (3-7
nm)
Industrial: vessels <100 GT/
200HP engine (7–12 nm); &
vessels >100GT/200HP
engine (>12 nm to EEZ)
Malaysia
Inshore or traditional:
boats <10 GT (within 3 nm)
Modern gear (Trawl & purse
seine):
boats >10 GT (>3nm)
Philippines
‘Municipal’
boats < 3 GT (<15 km, ~8
nm)
‘Commercial’
boats >3 GT (>15 km)
Thailand
<12 nm mainly gillnets
>12 nm using trawl, purse
seines, mackerel gillnet
people  science  environment  partners
Existing Fishing Zones …..
(Source: Silvestre et al. 2003)
Countries
BRUNEI
DARUSSALAM
INDONESIA
MALAYSIA
PHILIPPINES
THAILAND
VIET NAM
Fishing Zone I
3nm
(Small-scale/
Artisanal fisheries)
3nm
(Small-scale
fisheries)
5nm
(Traditional
Fisheries)
15km (~8nm)
(Municipal fisheries)
12nm
(Small-scale
fisheries)
0 to 30m depth in
Northern and
Southern areas, to
50m depth in
Central area
(Small-scale
fisheries)
Fishing Zone II
Fishing Zone III
Fishing Zone IV
Reference Point: Distance from shoreline
3nm to 20nm
20nm to 45nm
45nm to EEZ limit
(Small-scale/
(Small-scale/
(Small-scale/ Artisanal
Artisanal fisheries
Artisanal fisheries
fisheries /Industrial
/Industrial fisheries)
/Industrial fisheries)
fisheries)
7nm
(Small-scale
fisheries)
5nm to 12nm
(Commercial
Fisheries)
15km (~8nm) to
EEZ limit
(Commercial
fisheries)
12nm to EEZ limit
(Large-scale
fisheries)
30 to 50m depth to
the EEZ limit
(Large-scale
fisheries)
12nm
(Industrial fisheries)
>12nm
(Industrial fisheries)
12nm to 30nm
(Commercial
Fisheries)
30nm to EEZ
(Commercial
Fisheries)
people  science  environment  partners
Source: Thompson & FAO 1988
SSF vs LSF (global)…
people  science  environment  partners
Conceptual Framework
people  science  environment  partners
Typology of Conflicts
Type
Description of conflicts
Examples
I
Conflicts on who
controls the fishery
Access issue - who among fishers can fish
(e.g. ownership between concessionaires
& fishermen)
II
Conflicts on how the
fisheries is controlled
Enforcement issues - how management
systems are implemented (quota /
allocation, fishing seasons)
III
Conflicts between the
fishery users
User-group-related issues (small vs largescale fishers; ethic, religious groups)
IV
Conflicts between
fishers and other
resource users
Conflicts arising from multiple use of
resources (farming vs tourism vs
conservation vs industrial development)
V
Conflicts between
fishers and non-fishery
issues
Conflict external to but affecting fisheries
(corruption, politics, elite groups,
environmental concerns, and
economic change)
Source: Bennett et al. 2001
people  science  environment  partners
Typology of Conflicts
& Security Concerns
(Salayo et al. 2006)
Type
I
Who controls the fishery
II
How the fisheries is
controlled
III
Conflicts between the fishery
users
IV
V
Livelihood
(Income)
Food Security
Conflicts between fishers and
other resource users
Conflicts between fishers
and non-fishery issues
Environmental
Degradation
Threat to Lives
people  science  environment  partners
Conflict Cases and Study Sites
Cambodia Allocation of
fishing rights
Pursat in Tonle Sap Lake;
Kandal in Mekong River;
Kampot in the Gulf of
Thailand
Philippines
(Visayan
Sea)
Thailand
(Gulf of
Thailand)
Small- vs. largescale fisheries
Iloilo, Negros & Cebu
provinces in the Visayan
Sea (3 municipalities)
Anchovy fishery
and small-scale
operators
Songkhla province in the
Gulf of Thailand (Natub
SD in Chana & Bo Daeng
SD in Sating Pra)
people  science  environment  partners
Case Study: Visayan Sea
Luzon
Visayas
Mindanao
people  science  environment  partners
Visayan Sea, Philippines
 More than 20 LGUs (4 provinces)
 LGUs manage coastal zones up to 15-km from the
shore (Local Government Code – 1991; Fisheries
Act – 1998)
 Area = 5,184 km2; Depth ~ 20 fathoms
 Fisheries catch contribute to >10% of total (national)
fish production (~200 thousand t)
 Declining catch rates (~25% bet. 1990 – 1995)
 Visayan Sea Coastal Resources and Fisheries
Management Project (initiative with funds from
GTZ)
people  science  environment  partners
Typologies of Conflicts:
Visayan Sea
 Municipal (small) vs. commercial (large)
sector (15-km)
 Among municipal fishers (within 15-km)
 Access given by local governments to
commercial fisheries to operate between 1015 km)
 Gear ban (trawl within 15 km)
people  science  environment  partners
Strategies for Managing Fisheries and
Conflicts
people  science  environment  partners
Ban Use of Some Gears
80
70
60
50
% 40
30
20
10
0
Commercial
Municipal
Highly
agree
Undecided
Strongly
Disagree
Response
people  science  environment  partners
Catch Limit
60
50
40
% 30
20
10
Commercial
Municipal
0
Highly
agree
Undecided
Strongly
Disagree
Response
people  science  environment  partners
Alternative Job
50
40
%
30
20
Commercial
10
Municipal
0
Highly
agree
Undecided
Strongly
Disagree
Response
people  science  environment  partners
Establishment of MPAs
70
60
50
40
%
30
20
10
0
Commercial
Municipal
Highly
agree
Undecided
Strongly
Disagree
Response
people  science  environment  partners
Limit Number of Fishers
35
30
25
20
%
15
10
5
0
Commercial
Municipal
Highly
agree
Undecided
Strongly
Disagree
Response
people  science  environment  partners
Strategies for Managing Fisheries
and Conflicts
 Ban use of some gears
Set maximum limit of catch
Set non-fishing season (“closed season”)
 Establish “Protected Areas”
Limit number of fishers
 Alternative livelihood
people  science  environment  partners
Reactions of respondents to
exit strategies
Exit strategy
Cambodia
Philippines
Thailand
 Catch limitation
Disagreed
Disagreed
n/a
 Limiting the number of
fishers
Disagreed
Disagreed
n/a
Agreed
Agreed
Recommended
Disagreed
Ambivalent
n/a
n/a
Agreed
Recommended
Agreed
Agreed
Recommended
Effort reduction
Gear / area / temporal
restrictions
 Banning the use of some
gears
 Closed season / nonfishing seasons
 Establishment of protected
areas
Sustainable alternative
livelihoods
people  science  environment  partners
Key Lessons….




All conflicts have varying underlying or root causes
Each conflict has corresponding threats or impacts
Conflicts may produce some losers and winners
Conflicts have security implications (livelihoods, food
security, habitats and fish stocks)
 Need for review & updating of existing laws &
regulations
 Improved implementation strategies
 Exit strategies need to be designed with stakeholders,
not all technical solutions are acceptable
people  science  environment  partners
Management of Fishing Capacity and
Resource Use Conflicts in Southeast Asia:
A Policy Brief
M. Ahmed
N.D. Salayo
K. Viswanathan
L.R. Garces
M.D. Pido
people  science  environment  partners
Policy Recommendations
1. Uphold institutional partnership in R & D

Undertake relevant R&D programs

Provide scientific/ technical advice and other
relevant information

Enhance institutional networking
people  science  environment  partners
Policy Recommendations
2. Building non-fishery human capacity to
reduce fishing capacity (HRD needs)






Build capacity of institutions in all levels of
governance (e.g., formulate & implement plan of
action)
Develop coordination and partnerships among
stakeholders (national/local levels)
Facilitate community organizing and development
Develop key partners in sustainable resource
management
Participate actively in action programs at the local
level
Secure access to resources for sustainable
livelihood
people  science  environment  partners
Policy Recommendations
3. Promote and harmonize action plans
through good governance

Formulate and implement a national plan of action
for addressing over-capacity and resource use
conflicts in fisheries

Harmonize relevant plan of action at international /
regional level

Promote collaboration in implementing
international / regional action programs
people  science  environment  partners
Policy Recommendations
4. Advocate management interventions and
politicize security threat

Promote a conducive policy climate

Promote effective natural resource management

Support fisheries and resource management
people  science  environment  partners
Policy Recommendations

Premised on institutional partnerships and crucial
roles:







academic/research institutions,
national/local governments,
NGOs/people’s organizations (POs)
international/regional organizations,
donors/investors,
private sector, and
primary stakeholders
people  science  environment  partners
Future Directions….
 Development of mechanisms for implementing cooperation in the midst of conflicts and impending
security threats to fishing livelihoods, food security,
and fishery habitat and stocks.
 Research involving cross-border conflicts in various
‘fishery hot spots’ in Southeast Asia that was not
covered in this study could be developed.
 Action research and field trials of proposed policy
recommendations for managing fisheries, conflicts
and excess capacity could be pursued.
people  science  environment  partners
Future Directions….
 Strategies for managing fishing
capacity (Stobutzki et al, 2006):
 Country- and Fisheryspecific
 Effective access and
property rights (compliance
to regulations)
 Balance between smallscale and industrial scale
 Use of group-user rights
(SEAFDEC)
people  science  environment  partners
Institutional
Profile
Fisheries Resources
International
Socio-Economic
Profile
RD*
RD
RD IC
IC
National
IC*
Regional
Inter-LGU
Local
Resource Distribution
(spatial
Pyramid of
)
Smallscale
Medium- Largescale
scale
Fishing Sub-sectors
Biomass
NATURAL
DIMENSION
HUMAN
DIMENSION
*RD - Resource distribution
IC - Institutional control
people  science  environment  partners
Discussion Questions….
 How can decentralization (local governance)
improve resource management and reduce
resource use conflicts?
 How can we reconcile local- and nationallevel fisheries management priorities given
a decentralized system?
people  science  environment  partners