Adolescence
What is ‘adolescence’?
• Adolescence is typically
defined as the transitional
period between childhood
and adulthood – largely
Western.
• Social construct – not
universal – may be culturally
specific to some extent.
What is ‘adolescence’?
• Not everyone agrees it is a
unique period across all cultures
• Considerable differences –
individually & culturally – in
experience of adolescence
• Most research on adolescence
conducted in western countries
• WHO describes adolescence as
occurring between 10 & 20 years
of age
Adolescence
Biological approach
• Adolescence can be defined from a purely
biological perspective as the period when
there is a rapid increase in growth (known
as the growth spurt) and the redistribution
of muscle tissue and body fat. The pituitary
gland acts to increase the amount of sex
hormones entering the bloodstream
(oestrogen in girls and testosterone in
boys). The individual becomes biologically
capable of producing and nurturing
children.
Adolescence
Cognitive approach
• From a cognitive
developmental perspective,
adolescence can be defined as
the period when the Piagetian
notion of formal operational
thought develops. This allows
for the consideration of new
beliefs and possibilities.
Adolescence
Sociocultural approach
• Adolescence can also be defined through
a political or socially constructed
paradigm. The World Health
Organization (WHO) defines it as the
period between 10 and 20 years of age.
However, this does not take into account
the varying social roles undertaken in
many cultures as a consequence of
adolescence.
Adolescence
Sociocultural approach
• In the West, 18 or 19-year-olds may
still be seen as adolescents, but in
other cultures, 14-year-olds may be
expected to marry and perform
adult functions in the community.
The culture of the teenager
developed in post-World War II
America and teenagers quickly
became a clearly demarcated group
for social researchers.
Adolescence – Physical Changes
• Adolescent growth spurt –
both genders.
• Males: prostate gland and
seminal vesicles enlarge in
males; growth of pubic – then
chest and facial hair.
• Females: ovaries enlarge,
breasts develop over 3-4 years,
first menstruation – menarche
Adolescence – Physical Changes
Physical Change & Development of Identity
• According to Davies & Furnham (1986), the average adolescent is
sensitive to, and critical of, his/her physical self.
• Confronted with cultural standards of beauty in evaluating own
body image (via media and social networks). This may produce
non-normative shift in the form of dieting practices leading
perhaps to eating disorders.
• May lead to body image dissatisfaction: the feeling of
discrepancy between actual and ideal body image.
• Researchers have found body image dissatisfaction to be a strong
predictor of depression, exercise dependence, eating disorders &
steroid use among young people in the US (Stice and Withenton,
2002)
Physical Change & Development of Identity
• Boys body image generally more positive than girls, and boys
are much more likely to welcome weight gain.
• Simmons and Blyth (1987) – Cultural Ideal Hypothesis puberty brings boys closer to their ideal body while girls shift
further from theirs. A cultural ideal is that male bodies be
big & strong while ideal female bodies in Western (and
Asian?) culture is slim.
• The Cultural Ideal hypothesis predicts that, since the cultural
ideal for the female body is being slim, adolescent girls
should more likely to to express body dissatisfaction and
resort to dieting. Research evidence supports this.
Physical Change & Development of Identity
• Caufmann & Steinberg (1996) – girls in western cultures more
concerned about appearance and express more worry & concern
about how other people will respond to them than in other
cultures. If body shape far from dominant cultural ideal of
slimness, more likely to develop low self esteem and negative
body image.
• The objectification theory (Fredrickson and Roberts, 1997) –
Western girls are socialised to constantly think of whether their
bodies and physical appearance are pleasing to others. May be in
a chronic state of anxiety.
• Stice and Withenton (2002) – body image dissatisfaction strong
predictor of depression in the US
Physical Change & Development of Identity
• Croll (2005) - body image is the dynamic
perception of one’s body – how it looks,
feels, and moves.
She found:
• 50–88% of adolescent girls feel negatively
about their body shape or size.
• 49% of teenage girls say they know
someone with an eating disorder.
• Only 33% of girls say they are at the right
weight for their body, while 58% want to
lose weight and 9% want to gain weight.
Physical Change & Development of Identity
• 66% of females think their current size is too
large; 21% of males feel this way.
• Over 33% of males think their current size is
too small; 10% of women feel this way.
• Strikingly, while only 30% of older adolescents
consider their current size acceptable to
themselves, 85% of females and 95% of males
considered their current size socially
acceptable for others.
• 85% of young women worry ‘a lot’ about how
they look and twice as many males as females
say they are satisfied with their appearance.
Physical Change & Development of Identity
• Croll (2005) argues that puberty for boys brings characteristics typically
admired by society – height, speed, broadness, and strength. On the other
hand, puberty for girls brings characteristics often perceived as less
desirable; girls generally get rounder and have increased body fat. These
changes can serve to further enhance dissatisfaction among girls going
through puberty.
• Brownell and Napolitano (1995) illustrate how the body-image expectations
of pre-teens can be distorted with their ‘If Barbie and Ken Were Real’ study.
Barbie’s neck would be too long and thin to support the weight of her head,
and her upper body proportions would make it difficult for her walk
upright. In Ken’s case, his huge barrel chest and enormously thick neck
would nearly preclude him from wearing a shirt. Rather bizarrely, Ken
would be 7 feet 2 inches tall while Barbie would be 5 feet 2 inches.
Physical Change & Development of Identity
• Ferron (1997) used semi-structured interviews from 60 American
and 60 French adolescents of equal gender. One theme was body
changes during puberty and how they coped.
• 75 % of Americans did not believe biological predisposition
determined body shape. They believed it was possible to attain
the perfect body adhering to rules and if one tried. 80% believed
in the effectiveness of specific diets or physical exercise.
• Americans more likely to suffer from self-blame and guilt - and
adopt unhealthy weight regulating strategies
• 75% of Americans girls believed their personal worth depended
on looks and would do anything to get close to idealised body
image
Physical Change & Development of Identity
• Less than 50% of French adolescents believed they could
obtain the ‘perfect body’.
• 75% of French adolescents believed that physical appearance
is biologically determined and could not be extensively
modified through willpower or behaviour.
• Shows the difference between two Western countries.
Results may not be generalised to non-Western countries or
contexts
• Gathered using self-reported data – not always reliable
Psychological Research into Adolescence
• Hall (1904) – earliest theory of
adolescence.
• Adolescence a time of ‘storm and stress’ –
mirrors history of the human race over the
past 2000 years.
• A result of a reaction to changes in the
body
• Adolescent rebellion – conflict, rejection
of adult values and reckless behaviour research demonstrates that around 1 in 5
adolescents experience this.
Psychological Research into Adolescence
• Erikson’s fifth stage of development
–
–
–
–
Basic trust vs Mistrust (birth to 18 months)
Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt (18 months – 3 years)
Initiative vs Guilt (3-6 years)
Industry vs Inferiority (6 years – puberty)
– Identity vs Identity Confusion (puberty to young adulthood)
– Intimacy vs Isolation (young adulthood)
– Generativity vs Stagnation (middle adulthood)
– Integrity vs Despair (late adulthood)
Psychological Research into Adolescence
• The chief task of adolescents is to confront the crisis of
Identity vs identity confusion (or Identity vs role
confusion) – to become a unique adult with coherent
sense of self. The crisis is normal and essential for
identity construction
• ‘Identity crisis’ – identity forms as adolescents resolve
three major issues
– Choice of occupation
– Adoption of values to live by
– Develop a satisfying sexual identity.
Psychological Research into Adolescence
Psychosocial Moratorium
• The time out period between childhood
and adulthood that adolescence provides
that allows young people to ‘find
themselves’ – search for commitments to
which they can be faithful.
• Adolescents have ‘premature adulthood
thrust upon them’. They lack time for a
psychosocial moratorium
Psychological Research into Adolescence
Failure to integrate perceptions of the self into a
coherent whole results in role confusion. It can
affect the following:
• Intimacy: a fear of commitment to, or involvement
in, close relationships, arises from fear of losing
one’s own identity
• Time perspective: inability to plan for the future or
retain sense of time. Connected with anxieties
about change and becoming an adult.
Psychological Research into Adolescence
• Industry: difficulty channeling resources
in a a realistic way into work, study or
both. Difficulty concentrating or
become obsessed with a particular
activity
• Negative identity: engaging in
delinquent behaviour (drug taking, risk,
suicide). This extreme position is better
than isolation (ie negative identity is
better than no identity)
Psychological Research into Adolescence
Support for Erikson:
• Espin (1990)
• Longitudinal case study
• Analysed letters of a LatinAmerican Girl to her teacher over 9
years to her teacher (71 letters)
between the ages of 13 and 22.
• Identity appeared in the early
letters, but then declined.
Psychological Research into Adolescence
Challenge to Erikson:
• Rutter et al (1976) (see your white Dev Wkbk)
• Studied all adolescents on the Isle of Wight aged
between 14 and 15 (2,203)
• Interviews, questionnaires from parents, teachers and
adolescents
• Only minority showed signs of conflict. Not in line with
predictions.
• Large sample, good data – but self reported.
Psychological Research into Adolescence
Evaluation of Erikson:
• O Connell (1976) performed interviews with married women with
children in school. Women reported changes to identity after
marriage, childbirth etc.
• Identity formation not undertaken in adolescence alone. Could be
lifelong project.
• Western bias to the theory. Condon (1987) reviewed anthropological
evidence on the Inuit of the Canadian Arctic. At puberty, young
women began having children. Young men treated as adults when
they could build an igloo. Straight from childhood to adulthood –
Inuit did not question their identity
Psychological Research into Adolescence
• Marcia reformulated much of Erikson’s
work to test it empirically. His theories
are based around the idea of
resolution of crisis and commitment.
• Crisis occurs through having to reevaluate previous choices and values.
Commitment occurs after this reevaluation and the individual taking on
a set of roles and ideologies.
Psychological Research into Adolescence
• Identity achievement (crisis leading to commitment) – adolescent has
made a commitment to an identity – adopted a certain role. A person
resolves identity crisis by making own decisions without feeling pressured
to do so.
• Foreclosure (commitment without crisis) – adolescent have not
experienced identity crisis and seem willing to commit to various roles,
values or goals for the future.Adloescent is happy and self-assured but
has accepted others’ plans for his/her life. Becomes dogmatic when
opinions questioned. Obedient. Follows a powerful leader, like a
mother/father who accepts no disagreement.
Psychological Research into Adolescence
• Moratorium (crisis but no commitment yet) – adolescent is
in crisis and looking to make decisions, but has made no
commitment to those choices yet. Adolescent struggles with
decisions, is lively & self-confident but also anxious &
fearful. Is close to a parent but resists authority.
• Identity diffusion (no commitment, no crisis) – adolescent
has no sense of having choices, has not made – and not
willing or attempting to make – a commitment. Adolescent
unsure of him/herself – tends to be uncooperative. Parents
don’t discuss the future and say its up to the adolescent.
Tend to be lonely.
Psychological Research into Adolescence
Evaluation of Marcia
• Extension of Erickson – attempt to be more robust
• Melman (1979) looked at 12-24 year olds. Post 15 years – identity achievers
rose.
• Marcia used mainly middle class white male American sons and fathers in
research – conducted in the 60s and 70s.
• Waterman & Waterman (1975) – statuses are dependent on cohort groups
(who you look at – emic). Linked to age and culture
• Archer (1982) tested statuses in occupational choice, religious values, political
values and gender roles. 5% had the SAME status in all for areas. Different
stages of identity status in different areas of life
• Condon (1988) – Inuit study (cited earlier) – individuals who would be
identified as adolescents in the West treated as adults.