Chapter Five
The Rise of Rome
p. 162-191
Why Do We Study Rome?
• The Roman constitution is a model for many
democracies
• Roman architecture was unmatched until
recently
• Romans were able to administer people well,
while letting them keep their own culture
• Roman society was founded on principles of
justice and fair treatment for themselves and
foreigners alike
Geography: The Italian Peninsula
• Peninsula lies in the geographic centre of the Mare
Nostrum, “Our Sea”
• Separated from the rest of Europe by the Alps
• 1000 km long and 200 km wide
• Divided down the middle by the Apennine Mountains
• Few rivers that were navigable – most important were
the Po River and the Tiber
• Few good harbours
• Built Ostia at the mouth of the Tiber to supply the city of
Rome – “Portus”
Geography Part II
• Generally fertile along the narrow coastal plains and in
the river valleys
• Increased reliance on Egyptian grain as the urban
population increased
• Climate is mild in winter and summer
• Temperatures milder along the coasts
• The relatively mild climate, general agricultural
prosperity, seclusion from the rest of Europe, and central
position in the Mediterranean were all important factors
in the rise of Rome
The Etruscans: Forerunners of the
Romans
The Etruscans
• Controlled territory from the Po River to
Cumae on the northern edge of the Bay of
Naples
• Power of the Etruscans limited by the
Apennine Mountains
• Much of what we know about the Etruscans
come from their burial customs
The Etruscans Part II
• Buried under great
mounts or earth or
hollowed out tombs
• Tombs were made to
resemble houses
• Had relief sculptures
and frescoes
The Etruscans Part III
• The Etruscans may have been native to Italy or
may have been immigrants from Asia Minor.
• They were skilled artisans and accomplished
traders.
The Etruscan Monarchy: Kings of
Rome, 753 – 509 BCE
• The period of
monarchical rule lasted
from Rome's mythical
founding on 21 April
753 BC to 509 BC.
According to the
historian Livy, there
were seven kings of
Rome.
The Etruscan Monarchy Part II
• Romulus (753 - 715 BC) was supposedly the son of
Mars, the god of war, and a priestess, Rhea Silvia.
• Their uncle Amulius had ordered the death of
Romulus and his twin brother Remus.
• The twins were thrown into the Tiber River and they
eventually landed near Palatine, one of the Seven
Hills of Rome, and the home of the Emperors.
• A she-wolf suckled the boys until a shepherd found
them.
• The boys had a disagreement over the founding of
Rome and Romulus killed Remus.
The Etruscan Monarchy Part III
• Numa Pompilius (715 - 673 BC) was supposedly a
Savine and responsible for several religious
innovations.
• Tullius Hostilius (673 - 641 BC) was known for his
expansion of Rome's influence and his attack on Alba
Langa, Rome's mother city in Latium.
• Ancus Marcius (641 - 616 BC) was known for his
statesmanship and for resettling the Latins in Rome
and granting them security.
The Etruscan Monarchy Part IV
• Over time, the Etruscans extended their power to
include Rome and replaced Roman kings with
Etruscan ones.
• L. Tarquinius Priscus (616 - 579 BC) built the great
temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximum on the
Capitoline.
• In later times, Roman life was centred on the
capitolium.
• Priscus also built the sewer system, which drained
the valley between the Palatine and Aventine hills in
Rome.
The Etruscan Monarchy Part V
• Servius Tullius (579 - 534 BC) completed the
city building started by Priscus.
• L. Tarquinius Superbus (534 - 509 BC) was the
last Etruscan king.
– He was overbearing and tyrannical.
– His son, Sextus Tarquinius, raped Lucretia, which
lead to a rebellion by the Romans.
Etruscan Influence on Roman Life
• Several elements characteristic of Roman life
include numerals, human blood sports,
superstition
• The high magistrates of the Roman Republic
took over the purple garb and ivory thrones of
the Etruscan kings
• The symbols of authority over life and death -the fasces -- were also taken over as well
The Roman Republic
• The Roman Republic (Res Publica, public
matter) lasted from 509 BC to 27 BC and can
be seen as a battle between the Patricians -the land owning aristocracy -- and the
Plebeians -- the poor and landless.
• The Roman Republic was known as the
Senatus Populusque Romanus (the Senate
and the People of Rome).
Roman Republican Government
Assemblies
• The magistrates were drawn from several
assemblies. The Senate originally was a
council made up of wealthy land owning
males who advised the king. All patrician
males with enough money could be members
of the Senate.
Assemblies Part II
• The Comitia Centuriata was an assembly of all
land-owning male citizens, which were divided
into five electoral classes segregated according
to wealth.
• The wealthiest class voted first.
• The job of this assembly was to pass laws
presented to it by the annually elected senior
magistrates.
Assemblies Part III
• The Comitia Curiata comprised the thirty
divisions of the citizenry (curiae) from the
three clans, Ramnes, Luceres, and Tities.
• The job of this assembly was to confirm the
magistrate's right to exercise the authority
already given by the Comitia Centuriata.
Assemblies Part IV
• The Comitia Tributa was composed of all
citizens and could pass laws on behalf of all
the people.
• The Concilium Plebis was a tribal assembly
much like the Comitia Tributa but aristocrats
could not be members.
• It passed plebiscita that had the force of law.
Magistrates
• Two members of the Senate were elected to
the position of consul and they were the chief
magistrates of Rome.
– Consuls were elected annually, and the senior
consul had the power of veto over the junior one.
• A dictator was an extraordinary position
appointed by the consuls for a specified
period, usually 6 months.
– A dictator could rule without consulting any of the
assemblies.
Magistrates Part II
• The praetors were the magistrates under the
consuls.
– As the empire got bigger, more praetors were
needed to help administer the empire.
• Two censors held office for five-year terms.
Censors had to have held the position of
consul first.
– Censors had to draw up the lists of Roman
citizens.
Magistrates Part III
• The aediles were originally assistants to the
consuls, but eventually became responsible
for the maintenance of roads, public
executions, water, and official standards of
measure.
• The quaestors were annually elected officials
in charge of administrating financial matters.
The People and Their
Representatives
• The Council of Plebeians was set up to give
power to non-patricians and membership was
restricted to non-Senatorial males.
• Two tribunes were elected annually and they
could even veto the decisions of consuls.
• Gradually the number of tribunes was
increased to ten
Growth and Maturity of the
Republic
• For 400 years, the Roman Republic underwent
massive expansion and faced many dangers
• The Gauls of Europe besieged Rome, but
Rome recovered and fought back
• Rome struggled for power over the sea as its
desire for increased trade grew. This led to a
war with the Carthaginians who were the
greatest maritime power in the western
Mediterranean
External Forces: The Punic Wars,
264-146 BCE
• There were three
clashes with the
Carthaginians:
• First Punic War
264 - 261 BC
• Second Punic War
218 - 202 BC
• Third Punic War
149 - 146 BC
The Punic Wars Part II
• The word "Punic" is derived from the Latin
word meaning Phoenician, referring the
Carthaginian origins
• The Second Punic War was the most
dangerous time for Rome.
• Hannibal was the Carthaginian military leader
of the time, and he ruled Spain as his own
private kingdom.
The Punic Wars Part III
• Hannibal led a land-based attack on the
Romans by crossing the Alps.
– Hannibal lost between 9 and 14 000 soldiers and
36 war elephants (26 000 soldiers and 1 elephant
survived).
– Hannibal led 4 great battles that led to huge
Roman losses.
– For example on 2 August 216 BC, at Cannae in
southern Italy, over 50 000 from a Roman army of
86 000 were annihilated in one day
The Punic Wars Part IV
• Hannibal managed to
conquer most of the
Italian peninsula,
however he never
captured Rome.
• It took the Romans 14
years to drive Hannibal
out of Italy and back to
Carthage, in Northern
Africa.
The Punic Wars Part V
• Why did the city of Rome escape?
• The Carthaginians saw no advantage in setting
siege to a city that had been recently fortified
• Hannibal was fearful of a city that after so
many disastrous engagements could continue
to raise army after army
Scipio Africanus
• Publicius Cornelius
Scipio was appointed by
Romans to command in
Spain and systematically
rid Spain of the
Carthaginians.
• Scipio established a
permanent and
undeniable Roman
presence in Spain
Scipio Africanus Part II
• In 205 BC Scipio took an army to Spain and kicked out
Hannibal.
• He then crossed to Africa and ultimately captured Tunis
in 203 BC.
• After this, the Carthaginians sued for peace.
• Hannibal returned to Italy while the peace terms were
being considered and started up war once again.
• Scipio joined with the Masinissa, king of Numidia, and
defeated Hannibal at the Battle of Zama in 202 BC.
• For this victory, Scipio was given the honorary name
"Africanus".
Scipio Africanus Part II
• In 199 BC, Scipio was elected censor and
became the leading man in the Senate.
• A lover of Greek things, he argued during his
second consulship (194 BC) that mainland
Greece should not be totally abandoned, but
to no avail.
Scipio Africanus Part III
• Scipio was eventually humiliated by a series of trials.
• The trials were politically motivated and directed
against his family
• Scipio was also persecuted for his love of Greek
culture.
• Scipio retired from the city in 194 - 83 BC and died
soon after
• Scipio is important because it showed the potential
that Rome had to dominate the rest of the
Mediterranean.
The Punic Wars Part VI
• After their defeat by the Romans, the Carthaginians
were required to pay huge war reparations, forfeit
their commercial empire, and dismantle their oncepowerful navy.
• This did not keep them from rising up again 50 years
later.
• Numidia, a neighbour of Carthage, appealed to Rome
for help, and Rome responded by thoroughly
defeating the city.
• The entire city was plundered, burned, and ploughed
under with salt -- a Roman curse of eternal sterility
Eastern Expansion and its
Consequences
• In the same year that Carthage was destroyed,
the Romans also took over Corinth, the last
independent Greek city-state.
• There had been conflict in the Greek world
since the death of Alexander the Great in 323
BC.
– After Alexander's death, his empire was divided
into three parts, and the inheritors of these
empires squabbled amongst themselves.
Eastern Expansion and its
Consequences Part II
• Added to these squabbles were the pirates
who raided between the Italian and Balkan
peninsulas, which resulted in Roman trading
not being secure.
• Rome also became entangled in a series of
complicated dealings with the rulers of the
post-Alexander kingdoms.
Eastern Expansion and its
Consequences Part III
• This all came to a head in 147 BC when a
Senatorial deputation arrived in Corinth and
was treated badly.
– In 146 BC, the city was attacked, razed, and its
treasures plundered.
Expansion and Colonization in Italy
• Rome was also expanding its influence over the rest
of the Italian peninsula.
• The Latins, a neighbour to the south, had been given
Ius Latinum (Latin Rights), which meant they were
not quite foreign and not quite Roman, but they
were protected.
• Eventually, the non-Roman magistrates of a town
were given full-citizenship rights, while the rest of
the town's inhabitants received Latin Rights and
were obliged to pay taxes.
– These towns were known as municipia.
Expansion and Colonization in Italy
Part II
• Colonies were created in strategic places were
there were no inhabitants.
– The coloniae were given full Roman citizenship.
– Most of the colonists were retired soldiers or poor
Romans who had moved to the colonies for a
piece of land and the benefits of a rural existence.
• The Via Appia, or Appian Way, was the first
paved road leading to Rome. Colonies were
placed all along the Via Appia.
Conflict at Home: Dissatisfaction in
the Republic
• An entrepreneur class had grown out of the
more wealthy non-Senatorial masses.
• The knights who originated this class realized
that wealth and influence did not necessarily
have to come from owning land, but also
could come from owning businesses,
something the Senators deemed "sordid".
Conflict at Home Part II
• Tiberius Gracchus was elected in 133 BC as
tribune of the people and he felt that he knew
how to solve the problems of the urban poor.
– Gracchus redistributed land to the urban poor,
land that had been illegally taken by the richer
Romans.
– He also set up a Land Commission to distribute 10
ha plots.
– When Gracchus announced that he would seek reelection as tribune, it resulted in a riot instigated
by the Senate.
Conflict at Home Part III
• Over 300 people, including Gracchus, were killed,
however the Land Commission continued with its
job.
• In 123 BC, Tiberius's brother, Gaius was elected
tribune. He had three groups to deal with:
– The Senate who did not support the Land Commission
– The urban poor who wanted land but did not want more
Italians to receive Roman citizenship or Latin Rights
– The Italians who were envious of the urban poor who had
received land
Conflict at Home Part IV
• Gaius tried to satisfy all parties:
– He gave a free, monthly supply of grain to the
urban poor
– He proposed new colonies at Capua, Taranto, and
Carthage to meet the needs of the urban poor and
not irritate the Senate
– He transferred control of the jury courts and
awarded the lucrative business of overseas
taxation to the entrepreneur class
– He gave some rights to the Italians
Conflict at Home Part V
• This resulted in all
Roman citizens being
offended because they
feared the dilution of
their privileges among
the Italians.
• They opposed the
colonization of Carthage
on religious grounds
because Carthage had
been cursed with
eternal sterility.
Conflict at Home Part VI
• All of these actions made Gaius very unpopular, and
he was declared a Public Enemy in 121 BC, which
resulted in him committing suicide.
• The Gracchus brothers' failures were intensified in
the years to come as the gap between rich and poor
got bigger.
• This resulted in the demise of the Roman Republic.
Citizenship in Italy
• The Italians wanted a share of the privileges
which they observed in the marketplaces, the
for a and comitia of the colonies and
municipia.
Citizenship in Italy Part II
• Privileges of citizenship included
– Protected in Roman civil law from the arbitrary
exercise of power by a Roman magistrate
– A child born to a Roman citizen was also a Roman
citizen if the father had the legal right to marry the
mother
– Enjoyed a favourable tax status and were
exempted from tribute in Italy
– A slave freed by a full Roman citizen was himself
automatically a Roman citizen, although always
dependent on his benefactor
Citizenship in Italy Part III
• A bitter "Social War" broke out in 90 BC and
ended with the cruel suppression of the
Italians in 89 BC.
• The Romans then granted the citizenship to all
Italians south of the Po River.
• North of the Po, ordinary inhabitants were
given Latin Rights and certain cities were
made full coloniae.
Gaius Marius vs. L. Cornelius Sulla
Gaius Marius vs. L. Cornelius Sulla
Part II
• Two generals played a large role in the
suppression of the Italians: Gaius Marius and
L. Cornelius Sulla.
• Marius was a "soldier's soldier" who had
fought many foreign wars, however he lacked
the diplomatic skills to turn his military
accomplishments into personal gain.
• When Sulla was given the command of the
battle against Mithridates, Marius responded
by seizing power in Rome itself.
Gaius Marius vs. L. Cornelius Sulla
Part III
• Sulla then turned on Marius and drove him
out of the city.
• Sulla then left for the war against Mithridates.
• Marius then returned to Rome during Sulla's
absence and led a reign of terror in which he
tried to kill all of his enemies.
• This reign of terror ended when Marius died in
86 BC.
Gaius Marius vs. L. Cornelius Sulla
Part IV
• When Sulla returned to Rome, he had himself
appointed dictator for an indefinite period of time
and then killed off all of his real and unreal enemies.
• These were known as the proscriptions.
• Sulla posted the names of the people he wanted
killed, and then anyone in Rome could kill him.
• When the person was killed, Sulla could acquire his
wealth.
• Sulla eventually stepped down as dictator and died in
78 BC.
Republican Law and Legislation
• Laws were written down (codified) and were
analyzed in detail by professional jurists
• History of Roman law begins with the Twelve
Tables in 450 BCE and reached its maturity with
the legislation of Emperor Justinian in 528-534
CE, Corpus Juris Civilis
• Two major legal divisions:
– Civil law
– Criminal law
– Distinction between free people and slaves
The Twelve Tables
• Pressure by ordinary people led to the
appointment of a board of ten men with
consular power in 451 BCE established for the
writing down of statutes
– Was meant to break down the monopolization of
the law by the patricians and priestly elite
– Ten tables were compiled and then added two
more – had a list of basic legal procedures and
appropriate punishments
– Most of the contents were not formally abolished
until the sixth century CE
The Decline of the Roman Republic
Organization of a Roman Legion
Military Reform and the Rise of
Roman Generals
• Gaius Marius formed the Roman citizen army.
– Previous to this, soldiers had been both farmers
and soldiers.
– They planted their crops in the spring, fought in
the summer, and then returned in the fall to
harvest their crops
Military Reforms Part II
• During Marius' time, grain had become very
scarce and anyone who farmed grain was
needed in the fall to harvest the crop.
– At the same time, there were many people who
didn't own land who did not have to return in the
fall.
Military Reforms Part III
• Marius decided to create a professional,
standing army with a fixed term of service -16 years in the ranks and 4 years as a
veteranus.
• When the soldier retired, he would be given
a plot of land or money.
• The soldier could then get married as well.
Military Reforms Part IV
• Soldiers were given food and clothing
allowances, along with their pay.
• These soldiers were known as "Marius' mules"
because they had to carry a certain standard
minimum of equipment when on the march.
• Soldiers belonged to particular units,
complete with aquila (eagle, legionary
standards) and this resulted in great pride.
Military Reforms Part V
• The legion had about 600 men, and was
divided into ten cohorts of 480 men.
• The most experience cohort had 960 men.
• Each cohort was divided into centuries of 80
men who reported to a centurion.
• There were ten contubernia -- eight men
sharing one tent -- to a century.
Military Reforms Part VI
• A new recruit would start out in the most
junior century of the most junior cohort of the
legion.
• The soldier could then work up to the rank of
Primus Pilus, the centurion commanding the
first century of the first cohort.
Military Reforms Part VIII
• This new arrangement allowed the legion,
with its smaller divisions, to be easily
deployed.
• The drawback was the soldiers looked to their
generals, and not the Roman government, for
their security and pensions.
From Pompey to Caesar
• The man who had the most powerful army
could overthrow the constitutional
government.
– This resulted in Gnaeus Pompeius (Pompey), M.
Licinius Crassus, and G. Julius Caesar (Julius
Caesar) coming to power.
– All of these men were military men who cared
nothing for the constitution.
– They split the government of Rome between
themselves and in 60 BC formed the First
Triumvirate -- the Rule of Three Men.
From Pompey to Caesar Part II
• Caesar controlled the armies of Northern Italy.
He tried to gain military glory by taking over
southern Germany, France, Switzerland, and
parts of Austria.
• Crassus crushed the salve rebellion led by
Spartacus, and then went off to campaign
against the Parthians in modern day Iran.
• Pompey had already gained glory by clearing
out the pirates in the Mediterranean and
stayed home to be flattered by the Senate.
From Pompey to Caesar Part III
• The First Triumvirate soon broke down. Crassus was
defeated and killed by the Parthians in 53 BC.
• Pompey became a defender of Senatorial privilege
and agreed with a Senatorial demand in 50 BC that
Caesar should disband his army.
• Caesar realized this would leave him defenseless
that would result in his death.
• Caesar then committed an illegal act and crossed the
Rubicon, the border between his area of control and
Italy.
From Pompey to Caesar Part IV
• Pompey lost his defense of Rome and
retreated to Alexandria in Egypt, where he
was eventually defeated and decapitated.
• His sons survived, only to suffer defeat at
Munda in Spain.
From Pompey to Caesar
• In 46 BC, Caesar was appointed dictator for 10 years,
and in 45 BC, this was appointment was made for
life.
• He also became Pontifex Maximus (Chief Priest) and
became responsible for virtually all decision making.
• Caesar was king, but not in name.
• On 15 March 44 BC (the Ides of March), Julius
Caesar was killed by Brutus, Cassius, and other
conspirators who opposed his virtual control of the
Roman government.
Gaius Julius Caesar
• Caesar was a brilliant
general, writer, and
politician.
• Caesar had avoided the
proscriptions by Sulla by
travelling to the east on
diplomatic tasks.
• When he returned to
Rome, he wanted to
make a name for
himself as a military
man.
Gaius Julius Caesar Part II
• After forming the First Triumvirate, he wanted
a military command that would provide him
an opportunity to equal Pompey's exploits, so
he asked for the control of northern Italy,
Cisalpine Gaul, and southern Gaul outside
Italy.
• In this area, he was able to make a good name
for himself as a military commander.
Gaius Julius Caesar Part III
• The Senate was worried about Caesar's
military power.
• After being appointed dictator for life, his
megalomania was perceived as a threat to the
republican government.
• As a result, Caesar was murdered.
Gaius Julius Caesar Part IV
• Caesar was also a reformer, although his
military exploits have overshadowed his
reforms.
– He abolished trade guilds that had become
political, secret societies
– He settled his veteran soldiers in colonies
– He granted citizenship to the west
– He reduced the tax burden, especially in Asia
Minor
Gaius Julius Caesar Part V
– He made the Senate publish daily records, thus
becoming the first daily newspaper
– He introduced on 1 January 45 BC the Julian
Calendar to bring the civil year into line with the
solar year
– This calendar was used by the west until the
reforms of Pope Gregory XII in February 1582,
although many eastern orthodox religions,
including Russian and Greek still adhere to this
calendar
Daily Life in the Republic
Beliefs
• The Romans were very superstitious people
who adopted the whole pantheon of the
Olympic gods of Greece and then added to it.
• The Romans also believed in werewolves and
all forms of magic.
• The Etruscan culture influenced their laying of
curses, casting spells, and telling the future.
• They also believed in astrology and the Zodiac
Beliefs Part II
• The Pontifex Maximus supervised the official
religion.
– One of his jobs was to be in charge of the
calendar.
• People placated and honoured the gods
through prayer and sacrifice of animals.
• The souventuarilia involved the simultaneous
sacrifice of a pig, sheep, and ox.
Family Life and Morality
• The Roman Republic was based on the family unit
with the male Paterfamilias the head and was
endowed with potestas, legally recognized and
absolute power.
– The Paterfamilias had complete control over his wife,
children, and slaves.
– He was even allowed to abuse or kill any member of his
household.
– The Paterfamilias was expected to show gravitas
(conservatism), dignitas (dignified status), and severitas
(the ability not to shrink from harsh justice).
Family Life and Morality Part II
• The Roman Republic was made up of families that
were all linked to each other in gentes (clans), and
anything that interfered with the integrity of the
family was harshly punished.
– Inheritance was through the male line.
– Thus in order for your property to be inherited, you had to
have male children.
– This often resulted in adoption of males into the family.
– Men were allowed to divorce their wives if they did not
have male children
Family Life and Morality Part III
• Male children especially were well cared for.
– A newly born infant had to be recognized by the
father.
– The baby was laid at the father's feet and if he
picked the baby up, it was recognized as
legitimate.
– If the baby were not recognized, it would be
exposed in a public place where another person
could take the child for his own
Education
• Girls and boys of wealthy families were
brought together until puberty.
• Both sexes were taught to read and write.
• Girls were also taught to sing, dance, spin,
and weave.
Education Part II
• Boys were given a liberal education of
speaking and logical argument.
• There were even formal school and
universities.
• After a boy was finished his formal education,
he was formally led to the Forum Romanum
dressed in the toga of manhood.
• Roman boys were expected to pursue a career
in the law courts or army.
Rites of Passage: Portraits for
Posterity: Death, Art, and Ancestors
• Romans made wax death masks that were
paraded along with the funeral procession
• The family would then keep the mask and
would be used at other family funerals
• Soon started to make the death masks into
marble
The Role of Women
• Girls were educated in the home or sent to
elementary school until they were married.
• Once married, they were expected to have
children until a male heir was produced.
• Roman women had much freedom:
– they could go out to shop
– attend to business
– accompany their husband to dinner.
The Role of Women Part II
• Girls were usually married by the age of 15.
• There were two types of marriage
– The most ancient transferred the authority the
father held to the husband and the woman
remained a minor
– This marriage in manum, was conducted
according to ancient rituals
– The woman was ritually sold to the groom by the
father
The Role of Women Part III
– Usus (cohabitation) was common by the end of
the Republic
– A couple stated their intention to live together in a
married state
– As long as they lived together, they remained
married and when they wanted to divorce, one
partner told the other partner to move his/her
belongings out
– Women were still considered the subject of their
father
The Role of Women Part III
• Women could own property and engage in
business activities.
• Women exercised a great deal of influence
over all matters, even politics.
• This authority, however, declined with the
exposure to the east
The Role of Women Part IV
• The main purpose of being married was to
have children and a girl of fifteen could expect
a fairly rapid introduction of her
responsibilities.
– Sometimes girls as young as twelve had children.
– Women would continue to have children until a
male child was born.
• Augustus, the first Roman emperor, gave
special privileges to those families in which
the mothers had three children.
Vestal Virgins
• Vestal virgins were six girls and women of high
rank who were selected to tend the sacred fire
of the goddess Vesta in the heart of Rome.
• Each girl took a vow of virginity for 30 years.
– The first ten years were training
– The next ten years were performing duties
– The last ten years were training new vestals
Vestal Virgins Part II
• After 30 years, the girls were released from
their vows, and could marry, though most
didn't.
• If a Vestal was found to have broken her vow
of virginity, she was buried alive in a mound
outside the city walls and given just enough
food to survive a few days.
Latin Language and Literature
Language
• Romans spoke Latin
– As Romans became dominant, other languages
soon died out
– Only the Greek language remained
•
•
Language Part II
• The favorite things for Romans to write on were
Egyptian papyrus and parchment.
– Papyrus could either form long rolls of twenty pages,
which were sun-dried then glued together, or be sold as
individual pages.
– Only one side of the papyrus could be used.
– Ink was made of several substances, including soot, resin,
or excretion from squid or cuttlefish.
– A clean, wet sponge was used as an eraser.
– Pens could be copper alloy (bronze) instruments with nibs
or sharpened reeds or goose quills.
Literature
• Ennius wrote in verse and attempted to provide a
year-by-year account of Rome's developing power,
known as the Annals
• T. Maccius Plautus and P. Terentius Afer were two
well-known writers of comedies.
– There are 21 surviving plays by Plautus and 6 by Terrence.
– These plays influenced such playwrights as Moliere and
Shakespeare.
– Comedies were considered immoral, and as a result, there
was no permanent stone theatre in the city of Rome until
one was built by Pompey in 55 BC.
Literature Part II
• T. Lucretius Carus wrote On the Nature of Things, an epic
poem describing his theories on existence and ethical
behaviour.
• M. Tullius Cicero was a philosopher, orator, and writer.
He was a defender of the Republic and prosecuted many
notable Romans, including G. Verres, governor of Sicily.
– Cicero was killed by Marcus Antonius on 7 December
43 BC.
• Julius Caesar was a brilliant writer who was much
admired for his clarity of expression.
• C. Valerius Catullus was a poet who lampooned Caesar
Pushing Boundaries: Developments in
Science and Technology
Concrete: Bigger, Better Buildings
• Concrete is strong, versatile, waterproof, and fireresistant
• Basically use the same techniques today as the
Romans did around third century BCE
• Marble was not as easy to find as in Greece
• Made economical use of a mixture of lime, mortar,
gravel, and rubble
• Adding volcanic ash to lime and sand created
superior concrete that could even set under water
Roman Republican Art and
Architecture
• The Roman appetite for all forms of Greek art
increased with the conquest of Greece itself,
particularly the capture of Corinth in 146 BCE
• Generals brought art home through plunder,
but the wealthy had to buy it
• Large influx of Greek artists to Rome
• Workshops also set up in Athens and
elsewhere to produce artwork
Art and Architecture Part II
• In architecture, there was a fusion of Greek
and Roman cultures
• Greek style of peripteral temple (columns all
around) fused with the Italian tradition of a
front-facing temple on a high podium
• Romans gave us concrete
The End of the Roman Republic
• Strong class division and indirectly, Marius'
army reforms, led to factional strife and the
rise of military chiefs such as Marius and
Caesar.
– Also, there was no social safety net, so if you were
poor, you would starve.
The End of the Roman Republic
Part II
• The Empire was only slightly better for most
Romans.
– It began with Augustus "restoring" the Republic,
but in reality, he seized all the power for himself
and became emperor.
– This imperial rule would last in the West until 476
CE
History Continues to Unfold
• It has become clear that Livy’s account of early
Rome is less than reliable
• No written records earlier than the third
century BCE
• Archaeology is the most important key to
understanding the remote past