ANSWER BOOKLET COVER PAGE
School:
Team No:
Names of Team Members
Class
NRIC_NO:
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Bryan Yan Kai Jie
2I1
Y
Kok Jun Yi
2I1
Y
Samuel Leong Chee Weng
2I1
Y
Lee Shao Jie Timothy Ethan
2I1
Y
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Part 1 (Physics): [ANSWER]
(a)
When Earth and Mars are on opposite sides relative to the Sun, the distance
between would be approximately 1.5 + 1.0 = 2.5 times the average distance of the Earth
from the Sun or 2.5 AU. We will assume that the orbit is semi-circular (see diagram
below).2.5 AU will be the diameter of the semi-circular orbit. Thus, 1.25 AU will be the
radius of the semi-circular orbit. Therefore, after calculation [Refer to Fig. 1.1.1], the
distance is 3.671684872 × 108.
[Refer as well to Fig. 1.1.2]
(b)
Phoenix was launched on 4th August 2007 and successfully landed on 5th May
2008. Thus, Phoenix took 31-4+30+31+30+31+31+29+31+25= 295 days to get to Mars.
295 days = 1 062 000 seconds
By using the formula of distance, time and speed [Refer to Fig.1.2.1], we can
calculate that the average speed of the Phoenix is 3.457330388 × 105 m/s.
(c)
1c) 𝐾 = 𝐺
𝑀𝑚
𝑅
,
where K is the kinetic energy, G is the gravitational constant, M is the mass of the Earth,
m is the mass of the spacecraft and R is the radius of the Earth (the centre of the Earth to
the launch point of the spacecraft)
Since the mass of the Earth kilograms, the mass of the phoenix spacecraft is 350 kg, the
radius of the Earth is about 6 378.1 kilometres and the gravitational constant is 6.67 ×
10−11, thus the kinetic energy required for the journey is 2.186665292 × 1013 𝐽. [Refer
to Fig. 1.3.1]
(d)
Delta II 7925 has three stages: first stage has a main engine and 9 solid motors (6
ignited at lift-off, other 3 ignited at about 65.5 seconds after lift-off), second stage
consists of an Aerojet AJ10 engine, and the third stage is a Payload Assist Module
(PAM) stage with Star 48B solid motor. The Delta II 7925 also has a specific impulse of
273 seconds.
[Delta II 7925 Estimated Flight Details: Refer to Fig 1.4.1]
After calculation per stage [Refer to Fig. 1.4.2], and adding up all the total
changes in velocity, it was 1.746493194 × 104 m/s, more than the escape velocity of
Earth.
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∴ Since total change in velocity is more than escape velocity, Delta II 7925 can escape
Earth’s gravity.
There were certain discrepancies that were existent in the results as we made
certain assumptions. We did not count second engine cut-off and the constant decrease in
fuel, and we did not account for possible extra equipment in the lander and extra securing
cables and rocket modifications.
(e)
A manned mission to Mars would need significant steps and advancements in our
ability to recycle. There are mainly two major problems that we might face if we were to
attempt a manned mission to Mars. Firstly, there is the problem of a lack of basic needs
to provide for the astronauts. Secondly, there is the problem of the lack of fuel for the
return journey.
The first problem is extremely tough to overcome practically. Thus we will
present theoretical evidence to prove that it could be feasible in the future. The problem
exists that for such a long journey, astronauts need food and water and air, among many
others. It is extremely difficult to fit all the supplies for the whole mission into the
spacecraft, and it is impossible to obtain food from Mars. Thus, we have to recycle these
resources. It is possible to do so most of these basic needs, and we will analyse each one
of them systematically.
For air, there must be a source of oxygen for the crew to breathe and a means of
removing carbon dioxide, which the crew exhales. Manned space vehicles use a mixture
of oxygen and nitrogen similar to the earth's atmosphere at sea level. Fans circulate air
through the cabin and over containers filled with pellets of lithium hydroxide. These
pellets absorb carbon dioxide from the air. Carbon dioxide can also be combined with
other chemicals for disposal. Charcoal filters help control odours.
For water, spacecraft have to be fitted with devices called polymer electrolyte
membrane fuel cells (PEMFC) to produce pure water while they generate electricity for
the spacecraft. By combining hydrogen fuel with oxygen, fuel cells can produce plenty of
electric power while emitting only pure water as exhaust. On long missions, water must
be recycled and reused as much as possible. Dehumidifiers remove moisture from
exhaled air. On space stations, this water is usually reused for washing.
Food is the most troublesome. It is impossible to obtain food from Mars so all the
food has to be brought there for the astronauts. Today, astronauts enjoy ready-to-eat
meals much like convenience foods on the earth. Freeze-dried foods are also common in
space flights. Many space vehicles have facilities for heating frozen and chilled food.
Microwave ovens and toasters are available for use. For dehydrated food like beverages
and soups, adding hot water would hydrate it. To prevent the food from dirtying the
spacecraft, all space food do not have crumbs, and utensils and food packets are attached
with magnets to hold them down to the serving tray. Currently served meals in the
International Space Station include borsch soup, spaghetti, fruit salad and beef jerky. In
the case where there may not be enough space to compact all the food, an unmanned
spaceship containing the supplies has to be launched to Mars as well.
Fuel is the main challenge. It is impossible to contain all the fuel in one spacecraft
for both to and fro from Mars, so fuel has to be produced on Mars. This is possible in
theory. Mars atmosphere is made up of 95% carbon dioxide. Liquid hydrogen can be
transported to Mars in a separate spacecraft. The reaction of liquid hydrogen with carbon
dioxide at elevated temperatures and pressures in the presence of a nickel catalyst
produces methane and water. This reaction is known as the Sabatier reaction, with the
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chemical equation CO2 + 4H2 → CH4 + 2H2O. Methane is an extremely important rocket
fuel that can be used to power the return journey. Methane, furthermore, is less dangerous
to handle than liquid hydrogen. The methane can be collected, cooled and stored, and
used later to power the Earth Return Vehicle.
We propose a slightly modified version of the Mars Direct Mission as stated by
NASA In Mars Direct, two spacecraft are involved in each mission: firstly, a ship which
is launched from Earth, carrying the astronauts to Mars, which lands on Mars with them,
and is left behind on Mars; and secondly, a ship which is launched from Earth, carrying
liquid hydrogen, which lands on Mars, produces fuel for the return journey, and returns
(leaving behind the fuel manufacturing plant) to Earth with the astronauts. We think that
we should also involve two spacecraft in the manned Mars mission: firstly, a ship that
carries the necessary supplies possible to Mars, with the astronauts on board; secondly, a
supply ship that will reach Mars, carrying liquid hydrogen to convert to methane as fuel
for the return journey, as well as new supplies. After that, the fuel will be stored in the
first spacecraft and sent back to Earth with the astronauts, leaving behind the second
spacecraft and the fuel manufacturing plant for future missions.
[Fuel Cells: Refer to Fig. 1.5.1]
(f)
Ion engines are useful and energy-conserving, but to rely on them alone is
completely out of the question if we are to travel to Mars with the limitations of current
space technology.
Ion propulsion is a technology that involves ionizing a gas to propel a craft.
Instead of a spacecraft being propelled with standard chemicals, the gas xenon is given an
electrical charge, or ionized. It is then electrically accelerated to a speed of about 30
km/second. When xenon ions are emitted at such high speed as exhaust from a spacecraft,
they push the spacecraft in the opposite direction
There are quite a number of limitations when it comes to using ion engines. They
provide much less thrust at a given moment than do chemical rockets, which means they
can't break free of the Earth's gravity on their own. It is because the thrust to weight ratio
is so low for an ion engine. Typical rockets are designed with thrust to weight ratio of at
least 1.3, so they get positive acceleration at lift-off. Ion engines produce thrusts less than
1N, but have a mass of several hundred kilograms at least, showing that they cannot
escape Earth’s gravitational pull. This shows that it cannot with current technology
accelerate at a rate that would allow it to reach Earth’s escape velocity. They need to rely
on conventional boosters first to launch it into space. Furthermore, ion engines are still
under research and the technology is currently not safe enough for manned missions.
On the other hand, if ion engines could be developed, then it will be the way to go
for space travel. There are numerous benefits of ion engines, when we use it to power
manned missions to Mars. For a typical chemical rocket, the specific impulse is usually
between 200 and 450 depending on the type of fuel used. You get huge thrust, but you
also get huge fuel use. For ion engines, the typical specific impulses run between 2000
and 10,000. That means that for the low thrust, they use next to no fuel. Summing it up, if
the mission is going to last a long time anyway, then ion engines may be the way to go,
since we need less fuel overall to get to Mars.
There is also increased research into ion engines. One of them is the Variable
Specific Impulse Magnetoplasma Rocket (VASIMR). VASIMR is an electro-magnetic
thruster for spacecraft propulsion. It uses radio waves to ionize and heat a propellant, and
magnetic fields to accelerate the resulting plasma to generate thrust. It is one of several
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types of spacecraft electric propulsion systems. It was intended to bridge the gap between
high-thrust, low-specific impulse propulsion systems and low-thrust, high-specific
impulse systems. VASIMR is capable of functioning in either mode. Further
development into this and possibly incorporating it with nuclear fission to power the liftoff could potentially enable spacecraft to solely rely on ion engines.
We think that using ion engines solely now will never work if we are to send
people to Mars, but in the near future, it is entirely within reason.
[Ion thruster: Refer to Fig. 1.6.1]
Part 1 (Physics): [Figures]
Figure 1.1.1
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Figure 1.1.2
Key:
Green - Earth
Red - Mars
Dotted line - Path of probe to Mars, with trajectory extended to form a circle
(1) - Approximate position of Mars and Earth, time of launch
(2) - Approximate position of Mars and Earth, time of arrival
Figure 1.2.1
Figure 1.3.1
5.9742 × 1024 × 350 × 6.67 × 10−11
𝐾 =
6378.1
K ≈ 2.186665292 × 1013 𝐽
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Figure 1.4.1
Key:
MECO – Main Engine Cut-Off
SECO – Secondary Engine Cut-Off
Figure 1.4.2
Stage 1
Part 1
is the effective exhaust velocity (
expressed as a time period),
where
is the specific impulse
Where:
- is the specific impulse in seconds;
- is the specific impulse measured in m/s,
which is the same as the effective exhaust velocity measured in m/s ;
- is the
acceleration due to gravity at the Earth's surface, 9.81 m/s².
= 9.81 m/s² × 274 s = 2687.94 m/s
Delta II 7925 effective exhaust velocity = 2687.94 m/s
Initial Mass = 232220 kg
Mass per 1st 6 boosters = 13232 kg
Mass after 6 booster release = 232220 kg − 6(13232 kg) = 152828 kg
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Using Tsiolkovsky ′ s rocket equation,
𝑚
∆𝑣 = 𝑣e ln(𝑚0 )
1
∆𝑣 = Delta-v (the maximum change of speed of the vehicle with no external forces
acting)
𝑣e = Effective exhaust velocity
𝑚0
= Initial mass divided by final mass
𝑚
1
𝑚
232220
∴ Change in velocity = ∆𝑣 = 𝑣e ln (𝑚0 ) = 2687.94 × ln (152828 ) = 1.124559081 ×
1
103 m/s
Part 2
Initial Mass = 152828 kg
Mass per last 3 boosters = 13061 kg
Mass after 3 booster release = 152828 kg − 3(13061 kg) = 113645 kg
𝑚
∆𝑣 = 𝑣e ln(𝑚0 )
1
𝑚
152828
∴ Change in velocity = ∆𝑣 = 𝑣e ln (𝑚0 ) = 2687.94 × ln (113645 ) = 7.962580122 ×
1
102 m/s
Part 3
Initial Mass = 113645 kg
Mass for main engine = 101718 kg
Mass after main engine cutoff = 113645 kg − 101718 kg = 11927 kg
𝑚
∆𝑣 = 𝑣e ln(𝑚0 )
1
𝑚
113645
∴ Change in velocity = ∆𝑣 = 𝑣e ln (𝑚0 ) = 2687.94 × ln (101718 ) = 6.059355452 ×
1
103 m/s
Total change in velocity for Stage 1 = 1.124559081 × 103 m/s + 7.962580122 ×
102 m/s + 6.059355452 × 103 m/s = 7.980194655 × 103 m/s
Stage 2
Initial Mass = 11927 kg
Mass for second engine = 6930 kg
Mass after second engine cutoff = 11927 kg − 6930 kg = 4997 kg
𝑚
∆𝑣 = 𝑣e ln(𝑚0 )
1
𝑚
11927
∴ Change in velocity = ∆𝑣 = 𝑣e ln (𝑚0 ) = 2687.94 × ln ( 4997 ) = 2.338419112 ×
1
103 m/s
Stage 3
Initial Mass = 4997 kg
Mass for remaining lander = Remaining mass = 350 kg
𝑚
∆𝑣 = 𝑣e ln(𝑚0 )
1
𝑚
4997
∴ Change in velocity = ∆𝑣 = 𝑣e ln (𝑚0 ) = 2687.94 × ln ( 350 ) = 7.146318176 ×
103 m/s
1
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Escape velocity for Earth = 1.1200 × 104 m/s
Total change in velocity = 7.980194655 × 103 m/s + 2.338419112 × 103 m/s +
7.146318176 × 103 m/s = 1.746493194 × 104 m/s
Figure 1.5.1
Figure 1.6.1
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References:
1. http://www.quadibloc.com/science/spa02.htm
2. http://www.ulalaunch.com/site/docs/product_cards/guides/DeltaIIPayloadPlanner
sGuide2007.pdf
3. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escape_velocity
4. http://marsrover.nasa.gov/overview/
5. http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/rocket/rktpow.html
6. http://www.physicsforums.com/showthread.php?t=294545
7. http://www.spaceandtech.com/spacedata/elvs/delta2_specs.shtml
8. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delta_II
9. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsiolkovsky_rocket_equation
10. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effective_exhaust_velocity#Specific_impulse_as_a_s
peed_.28effective_exhaust_velocity.29
11. http://astro.phys.au.dk/KASC/Delta_2.htm
12. http://abhisheksood.50megs.com/living_in_space.htm
13. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabatier_reaction
14. http://library.thinkquest.org/11147/fuel.htm
15. http://www.uapress.arizona.edu/onlinebks/ResourcesNearEarthSpace/resources28
.pdf
16. http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2003/18mar_fuelcell/
17. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_food
18. http://www.space.com/3774-methane-rocket-engine-successfully-tested.html
19. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ion_thruster
20. http://dawn.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/ion_engine_interactive/index.html
21. http://nmp.nasa.gov/ds1/tech/ionpropfaq.html
22. http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn17476-ion-engine-could-one-day-power39day-trips-to-mars.html
23. http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn8599-superpowerful-new-ion-enginerevealed.html
24. http://www.gizmag.com/ad-astra-ion-engine-mars-39-days/12342/
25. http://www-spof.gsfc.nasa.gov/stargaze/Smars1.htm
26. http://www.fourmilab.ch/cgi-bin/Solar
27. http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/fuelcells/fc_types.html
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Acknowledgment:
We would thank the following for providing technical and moral support
throughout the course of the project: our teacher mentor Mr. Zhu Daoyuan, and Dr. Tan
Kok Kim.
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Part 2 (Life Sciences): [ANSWER]
Life is to be determined by what humans are familiar with and deem life to be, as
we observe on Earth. Also, it is assumed that life can be measured by observable data, for
instance, the growth of an organism which indicates it is living. Based on what we know,
life has some general characteristics.
Firstly, life forms carry out observable life processes. This includes taking in
energy to support and carry out life processes, which often give out energy. Most
commonly, respiration often gives of heat. This is often accomplished through the intake
of substances such as water, oxygen, and protein, and consequent excretion of waste
matter.
Two of the most common life processes are: 1) Photosynthesis – The root source
of energy being solar energy from the Sun. Photosynthesis, generally speaking, converts
solar energy and stores it as chemical potential energy in sugars, which is then used to
release energy during respiration to fuel other life processes. Photosynthesis takes place
on Earth when there is carbon dioxide and water, thus places harbouring
photosynthesizing organisms should have these substances Photosynthesis gives out
oxygen, thus we could look out for that too. 2) Respiration – Usage of sugars to release
energy for life processes. Aerobic respiration, used by humans, requires oxygen, thus if
this is indeed taking place, there must be oxygen at that area. Aerobic respiration also
gives of carbon dioxide, which could be measure for whether the organism is respiring.
Photosynthesis might not take place on Mars though, since Mars has little
atmosphere, less than 1% of Earth’s, which means that there will be little carbon dioxide
to tap on. Also, any organism which seeks to make use of solar energy on the surface has
to survive high levels of radiation from the Sun’s rays, it is unlikely that life will survive
on the surface, and thus not be able to tap on solar power. Moreover, the several trips to
Mars have all noted the absence of any life on the surface, thus life has a high chance of
being sub-surface.
Other ways to harness energy for life processes – assuming there might be life on
Mars, and that it cannot survive on the surface and thus cannot utilise solar energy, then it
must use some other form of energy. Geothermal energy is the most likely candidate for
an energy source would be energy from within the planet’s core. Where oxygen is
unavailable, anaerobic respiration might also be a possibility.
One thing to note is that the signatures of life processes might be different, even if
the processes themselves are the same as on Earth. For example, chlorophyll, a signature
substance for photosynthesis to take place, might not be green on Mars.
Secondly, the response of an organism to changes in their environment is an
indicator of life. Especially when creatures need favourable conditions to survive,
reactions such as moving towards or away from a place with certain conditions, such as
bright or wet places, can be observed and considered as a sign that the organism is living.
This is seen on Earth in the migratory routes of animals shifting further north due to
global warming.
Also, life forms will eventually die a natural death, or when conditions become
unfavourable for them to survive. This comes in useful for instance when on Earth,
scientists place microbes in very hot ovens to see if they can survive – in these
experiments, changes or absences of life processes and behaviours would indicate that the
organism has died and therefore was previously alive.
Thirdly, reproduction, which includes the passing on of genetic material, is a sign
of life. Observation of an organism, such as a microbe, multiplying through reproduction,
is a strong indicator of life. Also, detecting or identifying the genetic material through
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which these creatures pass on hereditary traits, if they do so, would be an even stronger
indicator of their life. In humans, this material is deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA.
Lastly, living creatures evolve. They have an ability to adapt and evolve to the
surrounding environment, and seek to do so, so as to be able to preserve and maintain
their species.
(b)
The environmental characteristics affecting extreme life, affected by factors such
as height, depth and age of a location, include temperature, light, pressure, radiation,
acidity, and substances or resources available to sustain life.
General environmental characteristics of Mars have several differences from
Earth’s. Yet, even on Earth, there exists a wide range of environment and consequently
organisms. Comparisons should be made between uncommon life, such as life deep
underground and familiar life, such as mammals and forest plants, on Earth, to clarify any
assumptions which might have been made, such as the need for oxygen for life.
It is worth noting that characteristics of Mars, which we are to determine suitable
or unsuitable for life, might hold certain similarities to some of the many environments
on Earth. Examples of relevant places for study include deep sea trenches and
hydrothermal vents, where there is no sunlight, to study how organisms harness energy
without the sun. Also, there are high amounts of iron in the soil on Mars, similar to the
Rio Tinto river in Spain, which has iron dissolved in highly acidic water so as to study
how organisms might adapt to such an environment with high iron content Another
example would be radioactive wastelands, which might come in useful since Mars’
surface would receive a lot of solar radiation due to a lack of atmosphere.
Early life on Earth should also be studied, especially to understand evolution of
creatures on Earth, giving us a clearer picture of what kind of life we should expect to
have evolved on Mars, both past and present. Fossils and bones, such as those of
dinosaurs, in conjunction with the sediments and rocks which can indicate the climate
conditions of that era, can be studied to expand the scope of the above research, and is
especially relevant when studying long term evolution. The most relevant animal
characteristics to study here might be physical ones, since these are what can be studied
from such fossils most easily.
(c)
Since we have not found definitive life forms on Mars despite several probe
missions, life probably exists in “ecological niche” areas, for instance below the surface,
where there is geothermal heat, or at the poles .
There are several substances to look out for when searching for life - presence of
substances which are generally recognised to be necessary to sustain life and carry out
life processes makes the chance of finding life much higher. One of the most important
substances is oxygen, which is used to carry out respiration, perhaps dissolved in water
like in Earth’s oceans, in underground Martian water bodies. A second such substance is
water, which is necessary for respiration, acts as a solvent for chemical reactions
substance, and also breaks down ultraviolet rays. Apart from these familiar substances,
significant presence of substances which indicates an anomaly in a certain area might be
a sign that a life form is producing it, thus we might search such areas for life. One such
phenomenon is presence of methane in Martian atmosphere, which seems inexplicable,
but might lead to organisms producing this gas as a waste product. However, presence of
such substances might be explained by chemical or mechanical factors, though only
searches can determine if such clues indeed lead to life.
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The first step in carrying out exploration would develops probes that can carry out
scientific tests and experiments in these areas, and perhaps return samples for further
study if the site has stronger potential for life and capabilities to transport back such
samples in sterile and safe conditions are developed. This is probably the most feasible
option because we have built such probes before such as the Viking rovers, there would
probably a large number of sites which need to be explored, and sending humans to these
sites might be dangerous or unfeasible given current life-support technology.
A final option would be to detect possible communication signals from extraterrestrial life, although this is highly unlikely in the case of Mars since such signals have
not been discovered despite repeated missions to the planet.
(d)
Firstly, it will be necessary for sterilisation to remove any harmful life. In order to
prevent extra-terrestrial life from contaminating and harming humans, the most effective
way would be to eliminate them from all people and objects returning from Mars, other
than any samples for laboratory analysis. To clean returning astronauts, they might
undergo multiple showers in sterilised rooms, and the used water collected kept away to
prevent contamination. For equipment such as spacecraft and spacesuits, more intense of
common sterilisation physical measures such as baking and radiation, can be used to
sterilise the equipment when they reach Earth. These radiation levels can be such that it
would destroy any viable life forms, but would not alter the geochemical makeup of
materials. It is also a possibility to sterilise the spacecraft along the return journey
through space, such as by exposing the spacecraft to intense solar radiation. It might also
be possible to clean the spacecraft using chemical means, which have previously been
used in other fields such as the pharmaceutical industry. Examples include the Limulus
Amebocyte Lysate (LAL) assay - searches for the presence of microbial cell wall
materials, which has the advantage of being highly sensitive, due to its reactivity to both
live and dead organisms.
Secondly, isolation, similar to the concept of quarantine to prevent spreading of
diseases, will probably be pursued whether or not we use sterilisation. This is especially
useful when scientists do not want to destroy any life but use them for research purposes,
or when certain ethical considerations come into play thus prohibiting “murder”. A
quarantine period could be implemented for returning astronauts, similar to that the first
astronauts to the moon underwent, where they are placed in a sealed, sterile room to
prevent any spread of harmful diseases, before and after they have been cleansed. For
equipment, it is possible to place them is a safe room, probably similar to those of
Biohazard level 3 used currently for other biological dangers. Anyone accessing these
equipment, both spacecraft and spacesuits, need to wear safety suits before entering the
room. This will apply for Martian samples too, so as not only to prevent spread of
harmful organisms, but not to contaminate those samples with organisms from Earth to
facilitate research. Alternatively, isolation can also take the form of leaving the spacecraft
in space and transporting the samples back to Earth via another craft which will
rendezvous with it in space.
(e)
Organisations such as National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and the
programmes and institutes they run, such as the NASA Astrobiology Institute (NAI), will
probably lead the forefront for education astrobiologists. NASA is ones of the
organisations with the most prestige and which is most widely recognised, probably
largely due to multiple space missions and successes. It has a legacy of cooperation and
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collaboration – collaboration between scientists from multiple universities, as well as
cooperative projects with other organisations around the world, such as the European
Space Agency (ESA), and engaging several universities in one single project, each doing
a different part. Programmes could consequently be implemented internationally,
drawing the widest pool of talent. A suitable organisation would also require technical
and financial expertise, which places NASA in a good position due to its significant size,
resources, and establishment. Long term education will however remain a cooperative
effort, and also a gradual process.
Stimulating interest and bringing talent into the field of astrobiology would be a
significant first step. NASA, and more specifically their relevant branch, the NAI, can
invest funds for programmes for education, and research and development, as the first
step to stimulate interest in astrobiology by indicating its intention to invest large sums in
education. Funding can also be sought from international sponsors such as governments
and companies (E.g. Lockheed Martin), directly to the organisation and through during
research and development projects. Preliminary findings from Mars missions can be
released and their potential implications publicised to students, to further stimulate
interest. To bond talent into the field of astrobiology, scholarships can be given out,
which promise education opportunities, funding, and career opportunities. These can be
given in collaboration with other institutes/corporations.
Education would be important in building up a pool of astrobiologists, and
grooming talent in the field. Partnerships between experts and students/graduates with
potential talent to form teams might be a policy – this can also be done through the
scholarships mentioned above. Inviting decorated scientists, such as Nobel laureates, to
hold workshops and seminars; training will help to develop foundation and talent.
Conferences, seminars and workshops for the sharing of ideas, discussion of data and
hypotheses by various scientists, through interaction with peers and experts, allows for
exploration through discourse.
Lastly, research projects could also be initiated, with funding from NASA.
Quality of projects can be ensured through a selection process of teams’ proposals, and
resources provided from there, such as specialised equipment and labs forming technical
support; higher level collaborations, such as with scientists directly working on Mars
missions, can be given to deserving candidates. As mentioned earlier, the scientists and
researchers, specialised support and funding, can all be contributed by NASA,
governments, other independent organisations, and relevant companies, similar to
Lockheed Martin, which contributed to the development of the Phoenix spacecraft.
4
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Part 2 (Life Sciences): [Figures]
NIL
1
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References:
1. http://www.theguardians.com/Microbiology/gm_mbc03.htm
2. http://www.theguardians.com/Microbiology/gm_mbc01.htm
3. http://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/postsecondary/features/mars_life_featu
re_1015.html
4. http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn9941-instant-expert-astrobiology.html
5. http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14208-the-most-extreme-lifeforms-in-theuniverse.html
6. http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14209-the-most-extreme-lifeforms-in-theuniverse-part-ii.html
7. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life
8. http://www.openminds.tv/researchers-are-building-instruments-to-detect-alienlife-706/
9. http://www.genengnews.com/analysis-and-insight/biotechnology-instrumentsbeing-used-to-detect-alien-life/77899415/
10. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/24522991/ns/technology_and_science-space/t/arerovers-cut-out-detect-alien-life/#.T07s3_Eb8yE
11. http://www.astrobio.net/interview/2190/how-can-we-find-alien-life
12. http://www.space.com/7410-protect-planets-earth-microbes.html
13. http://www.space.com/5449-stowaways-ruin-mars-missions.html
14. http://www.spacedaily.com/news/life-01zg.html
15. http://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2012/02/how-to-prevent-interplanetarypandemics/
16. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetary_protection
17. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limulus_amebocyte_lysate
18. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate
19. http://www.space.com/6136-mars-mission-contamination-big-concern.html
20. http://www-spof.gsfc.nasa.gov/stargaze/Smars1.htm
I
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Acknowledgment:
II
FOR OFFICIAL USE: S/N:
Part 3 (Mathematics): [ANSWER]
The Martian day lasts 88775.238 seconds; the Martian year lasts 59355040.68
seconds. The latest - vernal equinox was on 13/9/2011; summer solstice was on
13/5/2010; autumn equinox was on 12/11/2010 and winter solstice was on 8/4/2011, all
of these are relative to the northern hemisphere. The latitude is measured by subtracting
the angle of the sun above the horizon, i.e. when its noon on the equinox -90o, then you
will derive the degrees above or below the equator.
(1)
Based on the assumption that the proportion of time spent working is equivalent to that of
earth, (i.e. if one spends ½ their day working on earth, they would spend ½ their sol
working on Mars) then we simply have to calculate the fraction of time before and after
working on Earth and multiply that by the total amount of time in a sol. We can then
subtract them from the time of day and finally derive the times one starts and ends work,
which after calculation [Refer to Fig. 3.1.1], work starts at approximately 07:19:24 am
(Earth time) and ends at approximately 06:35:28 pm (Earth time).
(2)
Earth rotates at an axis of 23.27o while Mars on the other hand rotates at a
differentiated axis of 25.2o. Thus, the highest latitudes of which sun is directly over
during the solstices (i.e. Tropic of Capricorn and Cancer) must be shifted to the 25.2o
latitude mark to ensure that the position of the sun is correct on the basis of Mars. Before
we find out how to determine the season, we have to know when each season occurs with
respect to the sun. At the Vernal equinox, the sun at noon is directly over the equator. At
the Summer solstice, the sun at noon is directly over the Tropic of Cancer (Highest point
- 25.2oN). At the Autumnal equinox, the sun at noon has not yet gone over the equator.
At the Winter solstice, the sun at noon is directly over the Tropic of Capricorn (Lowest
point - 25.2oS). Relative to the Northern hemisphere, summer occurs during the time
between the Summer solstice and the Autumnal equinox. Autumn occurs during the time
between the Autumnal equinox and the Winter solstice. Winter occurs during the time
between the winter equinox and the Vernal equinox. Spring occurs during the time
between the Vernal equinox and the Summer solstice. Relative to the Southern
hemisphere, spring corresponds to autumn in the Northern hemisphere and summer
corresponds to winter in the Northern hemisphere and vice versa. After settling that, to
find out the season, we have to calculate the degree of which the sun is at for at least two
days in order to find out the direction the sun is travelling. If you are on Mars facing
south at the equator, first see if the sun is in front or behind you. Then measure the degree
on both days (as previously stated) and then calculate the difference between the
analemma to find out the direction the sun is heading towards. After getting the sun’s
directional sense, you will be able to tell if it is moving towards an equinox or a solstice.
If the sun is moving south when you are facing south, the sun is approaching the winter
solstice and it is autumn. If the sun is moving north, approaching the vernal equinox, then
it is winter. If the sun is behind you and it is moving north, it is approaching the summer
solstice, showing that it is spring. If the sun is moving south, it is approaching the
autumnal equinox and it is summer. If however, you are not on the equator, find your
latitude and subtract it from 90° to find the exact point of the sun at either an equinox or a
solstice relative to your position. After which, apply the methods stated above to get the
same results.
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(3)
Time the number of seconds between sun rise and sun set. Take the mean of that
and you will get the number of seconds after sun rise that noon occurs. Then, you can use
one of two methods to determine when the sun is at its highest position which is when
noon is. Firstly, you can grab any long object (or even stand there yourself) and watch the
shadow cast by the sun. The shortest shadow cast would mean the sun is at its highest
point. Secondly, you can use the sextant to track the sun and determine when the sun is at
its highest point. Using either of the two methods, you can work out when noon is.
Coupled with the exact timing provided by your Earth watch, you can thus find the exact
time of noon on Mars. If you are lucky and happen to be on either an equinox or solstice,
the sun would be directly over it at noon. You just have to use your latitude to determine
the position of the sun and once again, with the addition of the timing in seconds after sun
rise, you can find the exact time of noon.
(4)
The sun is always directly above the equator, at noon, in the occurrence of any
equinox. The angle of the sun above the horizon can be easily calculated once you know
your latitude. Simply subtract your latitude from 90° and you will get the angle. In three
special cases, you do not even need to know your latitude. Firstly if you are on the
equator, the sun would be directly above you. Secondly, if you are at the Tropic of
Cancer, the sun would be at its highest point – 25.2°N. Thirdly, if you are at the Tropic of
Capricorn, the sun would be at its lowest point – 25.2°S.
(5)
Airy-0 is a crater on Mars that is used to determine the Prime Meridian. Sync the
Earth watch at Airy-0 at noon. Based on the fact that approximately 3699 seconds passes
for every 15o you travels east, simply divide the number of seconds recorded on your
Earth watch by 3699 and then multiply it by 15° to get your longitude.
(6)
There are two methods to get the time. Firstly, you will need to both sync your
Earth watch at noon at the Prime Meridian on an equinox and know your longitude.
Understanding beforehand that every 15o one moves east from the Prime meridian, 3699
seconds are added to the time at the Prime Meridian and for every 15o one moves west,
3699 seconds are subtracted from the time at the Prime Meridian would be essential.
After that is understood, simply multiply the known longitude to get the answer.
Secondly, you will need to know your longitude at noon and your current position with
relation to the Prime Meridian. Simply add or subtract 3699 seconds for each 15° you are
east or west of the Prime Meridian to get the time.
(7)
13/9/2011 was the last vernal equinox which is the first day of a new Martian
year. 1/1/2013 is 531 Earth days after 13/9/2011 which translates into about 45878400
seconds – approximately 516 Martian days. The Martian calendar started on 20/7/1976 35 Earth years before 2011. Hence, the Martian year that started on 13/9/2011 was the
21st year. 1/1/2013 will thus fall on 1st of Poseidon on the 21st year or the 34th of Athena
on the 21st if the 20th year was a leap year.
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Part 3 (Mathematics): [Figures]
Figure 3.1.1
Assuming you start work at 7a.m. and end work at 6.30p.m. on Earth
7
Fraction of time before work = 24
Fraction of time after work =
24−11.5−7
5.5
24
= 24
=
11
48
7
Time before work on Mars = 24 × 88775.238
= 25892.77775 seconds
= 7.1924382 hours
11
Time after work on Mars = 48 × 88775.238
= 20344.3254 seconds
= 5.6512015 hours
Work starts at approximately 07:19:24 am (Earth time) and ends at approximately
06:35:28 pm (Earth time).
1
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References:
1. Finding the isle’s latitude:
http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/geology/leveson/core/linksa/findlat.html
2. The Millennium Mars Calendar:
http://pweb.jps.net/~gangale3/other/millenn.htm
3. Martian Seasons and Solar Longitude:
http://www-mars.lmd.jussieu.fr/mars/time/solar_longitude.html
4. Mars Date (Year and Solar Longitude) to Earth Date Conversion:
http://www-mars.lmd.jussieu.fr/mars/time/mars_date_to_earth_date.html
5. Mars:
http://cmex.ihmc.us/sitecat/sitecat2/mars.htm
6. The Equator, Hemispheres, Tropic of Cancer, and Tropic of Capricorn:
http://geography.about.com/od/learnabouttheearth/a/The-Equator-HemispheresTropic-Of-Cancer-And-Tropic-Of-Capricorn.htm
7. Mars Global Surveyor, Mars Orbiter Camera:
http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/mgs/msss/camera/images/01_31_01_releases/airy0/
8. How to use a Sextant:
http://www.robinsdocksideshop.com/how_to_use_a_sextant.htm
9. The Millennium Mars Calendar (non-perpetual):
http://pweb.jps.net/~gangale4/tables/t1998mm.htm
I
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Acknowledgment:
II
FOR OFFICIAL USE: S/N:
Part 4 (Chemistry): [ANSWER]
(1)
We have to look at the molecules which are commonly present in life here on
Earth, even though there is the possibility that other life forms might use different
elements for life processes. Elements that we should look out for include: hydrogen, a
constituent of water and constituent of sugar; carbon – one of the most versatile elements
which can bond with other elements perhaps because it has a valency of both +4 and -4, it
is an element involved in photosynthesis and respiration, a constituent of sugar, and
present in all organisms as we know them thus the term “organic substance”; silicon can
be considered, since it is in the same group as carbon, and might be present in classes of
molecules in extra-terrestrial life by forming similar chemical bonds in place of carbon;
oxygen – a necessity for aerobic respiration, a constituent of water, as well as constituent
of sugar; nitrogen – forms nitrates and nitrites many of which form fertilisers, and is part
of the nitrogen cycle which recycles nitrogen for use in plants.
Classes of molecules we should look out for include the following: water –
universal solvent for biochemical reactions; DNA/RNA and amino acids - these form the
basic proteins for life, by encoding characteristics of an organism in genetic material, and
plays a major part in reproduction; sugars and carbohydrates, which store chemical
potential energy after being broken down from food, is used for respiration to release
energy and are also essential to life.
(2)
The chosen molecule would be carbon which is an essential for life. This is
because all life on Earth is based on carbon; the variety of organic and organo-metallic
compounds formed cannot be paralleled by any other element. On Earth today, there are
three major carbon-bearing reservoirs that are interrelated: the atmosphere; the
hydrosphere; and the lithosphere. Superimposed on these, and acting throughout, is the
biosphere. By examining the way the reservoirs interact, and tracking the pathways
through which carbon moves from source to sink, interconnected carbon cycles are
delineated for Earth. It is then possible to look out for similar pathways for carbon on
Mars, and thus deduce whether or not there is carbon. The reaction of CO2 from the
atmosphere dissolving in water, eventually producing carbonate, is a reaction between
atmosphere and hydrosphere. This applies to both Earth and Mars.
To test for carbon, firstly select several types of rock or soil samples from Mars.
Then, heat the ground-up rock and soil samples, then analyse the gases for molecular
compounds. However, add a chemical cocktail, known as tetramethylammonium
hydroxide in methanol ( which is used in labs on Earth to study organic compounds)
before the heating process. This is to ensure that molecular structures are preserve which
are otherwise lost in the heating process. This could potentially be completed by a probe
on Mars with basic testing laboratories on board, such as the spacecraft sent to date to test
the soil.
[Refer to Figs. 4.2.1 and 4.2.2]
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Part 4 (Chemistry): [Figures]
Figure 4.2.1
Figure 4.2.2
(3)
Part 1
Surface Area of dome = 𝜋𝑟 2 = 4040
𝑟 = √
4040
𝜋
2
Volume (V) = 3 𝜋𝑟 3
2
FOR OFFICIAL USE: S/N:
2
4040 3
)
𝜋
= 3 𝜋(√
𝑚
Part 2
Pressure (P)
= 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚
= 1.01 × 105 𝑃𝑎
PV = nRT, where R is a constant of 8.31 and T is the constant temperature of the dome =
295K, and n is the number of moles
Thus RT = 8.31 × 295
= 2451.45
PV = nRT,
3
2
5
1.01 × 10 × 3 𝜋 (√
2
3
4040
𝜋
) = 8.31 × 295 × 𝑛
4040 3
)
𝜋
101000× 𝜋(√
𝑛 =
2451.45
𝑛 ≈ 3979277.134
Since the number of moles can only decrease by 20% before the dome has to be
evacuated,
Δ𝑛 = 0.2 × 3979277.134
= 795855.427
∆𝑚 = ∆𝑛 × 𝑀𝑟, where Mr is the molecular mass of nitrogen (28) and ∆𝑚 is the change
in mass
∴ 795855.427 × 28
∆𝑚 = 22283952 𝑘𝑔
∆𝑚 = 22283.952 𝑘𝑔
Part 3
Using the kinetic theory,
3𝑅
1
𝑇
=
𝑀𝑉 2 , where R is the constant 8.31, NA is the Avogadro constant
2𝑁𝐴
2
6.02214129(27) × 1023 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1 , T is the constant temperature of 295K, M is mass of
the molecules and V is their velocity.
𝑀𝑟
Since the mass of the molecules is the same as their 𝑁𝐴, thus
3 8.31
1 28
×
× 295 = ×
× 𝑉2
2 𝑁𝐴
2 𝑁𝐴
3677.175
14
𝑉 2 = 𝑁𝐴 ÷ 𝑁𝐴
𝑉 2 =
3677.175
14
𝑚/𝑠
3677.175
𝑉 = √
14
𝑚/𝑠
𝑉 ≈ 16.20664546 𝑚/𝑠
Part 4
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
Pressure = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
Since the force is the mass of the molecule hitting the back area per second and hence
escapes and the molecules will rebound giving twice the velocity,
∆𝑚
∴Force = ∆𝑡 2𝑉
3
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P =
∆𝑚
2𝑉
∆𝑡
PA =

∆𝑚
∆𝑡
𝐴
∆𝑚
=
∆𝑡 =
∆𝑡
𝑃𝐴
2𝑉
2𝑉
∆𝑚
𝑃𝐴
)
2𝑉
(
Part 5
Rate of time taken for molecules to escape until it reaches 0.8 atm
∆𝑚2𝑉
 ∆𝑡 = 𝑃𝐴 𝑠
22283.952×16.20664546
 ∆𝑡 = 101000 × 5 ×10−5 𝑠
 ∆𝑡 = 71514.47713𝑠
 ∆𝑡 = 𝟏𝟗. 𝟖𝟔𝟓𝟏𝟑𝟑𝒉
Thus, the dome has to be evacuated in about 19.9 hours from time of leakage.
4
FOR OFFICIAL USE: S/N:
References:
1. Avogadro constant:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avogadro_constant
2. The Kinetic Molecular Theory:
http://chemed.chem.purdue.edu/genchem/topicreview/bp/ch4/kinetic4.html
3. http://news.discovery.com/space/mars-lander-carbon-detector.html
4. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars
5. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1664679/
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Acknowledgment:
II