An Introduction to the
Stigmatization Process
Anthropology 393 – Cultural
Construction of HIV/AIDS
Josephine MacIntosh
Important Definitions
 Prejudice: Attitudes
which inform cognitive
representations (stereotypes) of other individuals
or groups based on their social position
(Biernat & Dovidio, 2000)
 Stereotypes:
Oversimplified cognitive conceptions
or beliefs about individuals who belong to a
particular social group or category. Rigid
‘caricaturizations’, often with little basis in reality
(Dovidio, Major & Crocker, 2000)
Important Definitions
 Stigma: Characteristic(s) that ostracizes a person from
‘normal’ society and decrease life chances
(Link & Phelan, 2001)
 Discrimination: Actions by others that further reduce
life chances by limiting access to jobs, education,
earnings, housing, healthcare, etc (Canadian HIV/AIDS Legal Network, 1999)
 HIV
stigma and discrimination: Attaches itself to
pre-existing stigmas, to racial stereotypes, or to stigma
against sexual minorities (Canadian HIV/AIDS Legal Network, 1999)
Goffman’s 3 Types of Stigma
Abominations of the body: physical disfigurement,
readily apparent, known at first glance
 Blemishes of individual character: inferred from known
records (e.g:, history of mental illness or incarceration), or
experience, may be less apparent
 Tribal stigma of race, nation and religion: hereditary
stigmas have the unique potential to discredit entire
families, may also be less visible

(Goffman, 1963)
Social Identity

Social identity (rather than social status) includes
personal characteristics (such as honesty) as well as
social attributes (such as occupation)
Virtual social identity: based on assumptions
 Actual social identity: based on experience

Congruence  normal social interactions
 Incongruence  disrupted social interactions

(Goffman, 1963)
Dimensions of Stigma
 Concealability:
Obvious or hidden?
 Course: Acute? Chronic? Fatal?
 Disruptiveness: Interaction uncertain?
 Aesthetic qualities: Fear? Disgust?
 Origin: Guilty? Innocent? Defenseless?
 Peril: Contagious? Highly infectious?
(Jones et al., 1984; Goffman, 1963)
Origins of Stigma
“Stigma develops out of an initial, universally
held motivation to avoid danger, followed by an
(often exaggerated) perception of characteristics
that promote threat, accompanied by a social
sharing of these perceptions with others.
Moreover… stigmas exist primarily in the minds
of stigmatizers and stigmatized individuals as
cultural social constructions…”
(Stangor & Crandall, 2000:62-3)
Stereotypes and Prejudices

Functional theories: for personal benefit

Cognitive economy, self-enhancement, to protect self
from harm


Describe initial impetus for stigma, but not stigma categories
Perceptual: direct observation + cognitive distortion

Belief creation
Illusory correlations between erroneously paired unique
experiences
 Unusual associated with negative


Accentuation

Differences exaggerated thru cognitive biases
Stereotypes and Prejudices
 Consensual:
to explain conformity among beliefs
 Social
exchange
 Communication
 no
need for direct experience or cognitive simplicity
 How
socially acceptable is it to hold negative attitudes?
 Repetition of cultural norms
 Reflect conformity not individual personality constructs
 does
not fully explain the origins of stigma
A Biocultural Framework
Highly interdependent, cooperative groups had an
evolutionary advantage
 Forming and maintaining functional groups (generally
kinships) became a primary human survival strategy
 The functionality of a given group depended on sharing,
cooperation, mutual investment, and trust
 Reciprocal prosocial behaviour would enhance chances
for survival
(Neuberg, Smith & Asher, 2000)

A Biocultural Framework
Reciprocal, prosocial behaviour would become
normative within groups
 Physical or behavioural characteristics that violate
groups standards are seen as a threat



Disability Vs. deliberate exploitation of others for personal
gain
Non-reciprocation based on disability generally less
stigmatizing than purposive disregard for group norms
A Biocultural Framework
Groups are built on a foundation of trust
 Breeches of trust are perceived as threats



Groups thrive when members adhere to social
rules and scripts that allow coordinated social
action and interaction


Liars, cheaters, thieves, traitors = significant threat to grp function
Unpredictable and incompetent are stigmatized
Survival of group requires reproductive fitness

Those exhibiting genetic weakness, behaviours which threaten
reproduction, or symptoms of contagious disease are stigmatized
A Biocultural Framework
In-groups Vs. Out-groups
 Difference in quality of interactions

In-groups: characterized by cooperation, evolutionary
advantage benefits all groups members
 Out-groups: compete with one another, evolutionary
advantage goes to one groups or the other


Threat from competing groups sets in motion the
mechanisms of stigmatization

Based on group membership rather that individual behaviours
and characteristics
A Biocultural Framework
Summary
 Continuance of group depends on trust, sharing,
cooperation and mutual investment
 Functionality and reproductive fitness depends
on conformity to social norms
 Deviation from group norms perceived as threat
Implications for HIV/AIDS
 HIV
is:
 Concealable,
fatal, socially disruptive, elicits fear and
disgust of the guilty, is seen as perilous
 Seen as bad for ‘the group’
 Is
behaviour that is ‘adaptive’ or ‘natural’ from
evolutionary standpoint right or justifiable in
contemporary society?
 Especially
if we have ways to reduce contact, reduce
infectivity and possibly reduce susceptibility?