First Lecture
09 July 2007
mdzuri@usm.my
drmdzuri76.wordpress.com
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Learning disabilities what are they?
1. Learning Disabilities refers to a variety of
disorders that affect the acquisition, retention,
understanding, organization or use of verbal
and/or non-verbal information.
2. Learning disabilities are present in at least 10
percent of the population.
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What is a learning disability?
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Interestingly, there is no clear and widely
accepted definition of "learning disabilities."
Because of the multidisciplinary nature of the
field, there is ongoing debate on the issue of
definition.
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Learning Disabilities
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Federal law defines specific learning disabilities as
psychological processing disorders that result in deficits in at
least one of the academic skills (U.S. Office of Education,
1977).
A child with this label does not have mental retardation,
behavior disorders or other major disabilities.
The child with LD has difficulty with processing skills such as
memory, visual perception, auditory perception, or thinking;
and as a result has trouble achieving in at least one subject
such as reading, math, or writing (Lerner, 2003).
Some of the typical characteristics associated with learning
disabilities include problems in reading, mathematics, writing,
and oral language; deficits in interpreting what is seen or
heard; difficulty with study skills, self-control, self-esteem,
memory, and attention (Mercer, 1997).
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These disparate definitions do
agree on certain factors:
The learning disabled have difficulties with
academic achievement and progress.
The learning disabled show an uneven pattern
of development (language development,
physical development, academic development
and/or perceptual development).
Learning problems are not due to
environmental disadvantage.
Learning problems are not due to mental
retardation or emotional disturbance.
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Kategori Masalah Pembelajaran?
Dignosa perubatan di bawah kategori ini merangkumi:
1. Lewat Perkembangan (Global Development Delay) (bagi kanakkanak berumur < 3 tahun)
2. Down' Syndrome dan Autisma
3. Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder (ADHD)
4. Terencat Akal (Mental Retardation) (bagi kanak-kanak berumur > 3
tahun)
5. Masalah pembelajaran spesifik seperti dyslexia, dyspraxia,
Hyperlexia,apraxia dll
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How prevalent are learning
disabilities?
• Experts estimate that 6 to 10 percent of the
school-aged population in the United States is
learning disabled.
• Nearly 40 percent of the children enrolled in the
nation's special education classes suffer from a
learning disability. The Foundation for Children
With Learning Disabilities estimates that there are
6 million adults with learning disabilities as well.
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What causes learning disabilities?
Little is currently known about the causes
of learning disabilities. However, some
general observations can be made:
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Some causes
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Some children develop and mature at a slower rate than others in the same
age group. As a result, they may not be able to do the expected school
work. This kind of learning disability is called "maturational lag."
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Some children with normal vision and hearing may misinterpret everyday
sights and sounds because of some unexplained disorder of the nervous
system.
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Injuries before birth or in early childhood probably account for some later
learning problems.
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Children born prematurely and children who had medical problems soon
after birth sometimes have learning disabilities.
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Learning disabilities tend to run in families, so some learning disabilities
may be inherited.
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Learning disabilities are more common in boys than girls, possibly
because boys tend to mature more slowly.
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Some learning disabilities appear to be linked to the irregular spelling,
pronunciation, and structure of the English language. The incidence of
learning disabilities is lower in Spanish or Italian speaking countries.
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What are the "early warning signs" of learning
disabilities?
Children with learning disabilities exhibit a wide range
of symptoms.
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problems with reading,
mathematics,
comprehension,
writing,
spoken language,
or reasoning abilities.
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Learning disabilities typically affect
five general areas:
Spoken language: delays, disorders, and
deviations in listening and speaking.
Written language: difficulties with reading,
writing and spelling.
Arithmetic: difficulty in performing arithmetic
operations or in understanding basic concepts.
Reasoning: difficulty in organizing and
integrating thoughts.
Memory: difficulty in remembering information
and instructions.
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Among the symptoms commonly related to learning
disabilities are:
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poor performance on group tests
difficulty discriminating size, shape, color
difficulty with temporal (time) concepts
distorted concept of body image
reversals in writing and reading
general awkwardness
poor visual-motor coordination
hyperactivity
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Among the symptoms commonly related to
learning disabilities are:
• difficulty copying accurately from a model
• slowness in completing work
• poor organizational skills
• easily confused by instructions
• difficulty with abstract reasoning and/or
problem solving
• disorganized thinking
• often obsesses on one topic or idea
• poor short-term or long-term memory
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Among the symptoms commonly related to
learning disabilities are:
• impulsive behavior; lack of reflective thought prior
to action
• low tolerance for frustration
• excessive movement during sleep
• poor peer relationships
• overly excitable during group play
• poor social judgment
• inappropriate, unselective, and often excessive
display of affection
• lags in developmental milestones (e.g. motor,
language)
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Among the symptoms commonly related to
learning disabilities are:
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behavior often inappropriate for situation
failure to see consequences for his actions
overly gullible; easily led by peers
excessive variation in mood and responsiveness
poor adjustment to environmental changes
overly distractible; difficulty concentrating
difficulty making decisions
lack of hand preference or mixed dominance
difficulty with tasks requiring sequencing
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When considering these symptoms, it is
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important to remain mindful of the following:
No one will have all these symptoms.
Among LD populations, some symptoms are
more common than others.
All people have at least two or three of these
problems to some degree.
The number of symptoms seen in a particular
child does not give an indication as whether the
disability is mild or severe. It is important to
consider if the behaviors are chronic and
appear in clusters.
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What should a parent do if it is suspected that a
child has a learning disability?
• The parent should contact the child's school and arrange
for testing and evaluation. Federal law requires that public
school districts provide special education and related
services to children who need them. If these tests indicate
that the child requires special educational services, the
school evaluation team (planning and placement team)
will meet to develop an individual educational plan (IEP)
geared to the child's needs. The IEP describes in detail an
educational plan designed to remediate and compensate
for the child's difficulties.
• Simultaneously, the parent should take the child to the
family pediatrician for a complete physical examination.
The child should be examined for correctable problems
(e.g. poor vision or hearing loss) that may cause difficulty
in school.
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How does a learning disability affect the parents of
the child?
• Research indicates that parental reaction to
the diagnosis of learning disability is more
pronounced than in any other area of
exceptionality.
• the parent of an LD child goes through a
series of emotions before truly accepting
the child and his problem.
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DENIAL: "There is really nothing wrong!"
"That's the way I was as a child--not to worry!"
"He'll grow out of it!"
BLAME: "You baby him!" "You expect too much
of him." "It's not from my side of the family."
FEAR: "Maybe they're not telling me the real
problem!" "Is it worse than they say?" "Will he
ever marry? go to college? graduate?"
ENVY: "Why can't he be like his sister or his
cousins?"
MOURNING: "He could have been such a
success, if not for the learning disability!"
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• BARGAINING: "Wait 'till next year!" "Maybe the problem will
improve if we move! (or he goes to camp, etc.)."
• ANGER: "The teachers don't know anything." "I hate this
neighborhood, this school...this teacher."
• GUILT: "My mother was right; I should have used cloth
diapers when he was a baby." "I shouldn't have worked
during his first year." "I am being punished for something and
my child is suffering as a result."
• ISOLATION: "Nobody else knows or cares about my child."
"You and I against the world. No one else understands."
• FLIGHT: "Let's try this new therapy--Donahue says it works!"
"We are going to go from clinic to clinic until somebody tells
me what I want to hear.!"
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Pointers for parents of children with learning
disabilities.
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Take the time to listen to your children as much as you can (really try to get
their "Message").
Love them by touching them, hugging them, tickling them, wrestling with
them (they need lots of physical contact).
Look for and encourage their strengths, interests, and abilities. Help them
to use these as compensations for any limitations or disabilities.
Reward them with praise, good words, smiles, and pat on the back as often
as you can.
Accept them for what they are and for their human potential for growth and
development. Be realistic in your expectations and demands.
Involve them in establishing rules and regulations, schedules, and family
activities.
ell them when they misbehave and explain how you feel about their
behavior; then have them propose other more acceptable ways of
behaving.
Help them to correct their errors and mistakes by showing or
demonstrating what they should do. Don't nag!
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Give them reasonable chores and a regular
family work responsibility whenever possible.
Give them an allowance as early as possible and
then help them plan to spend within it.
Provide toys, games, motor activities and
opportunities that will stimulate them in their
development.
Read enjoyable stories to them and with them.
Encourage them to ask questions, discuss
stories, tell the story, and to reread stories.
Further their ability to concentrate by reducing
distracting aspects of their environment as
much as possible (provide them with a place to
work, study and play).
Don't get hung up on traditional school grades!
It is important that they progress at their own
rates and be rewarded for doing so.
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• Take them to libraries and encourage them to select and
check out books of interest. Have them share their books
with you. Provide stimulating books and reading material
around the house.
• Help them to develop self-esteem and to compete with self
rather than with others.
• Insist that they cooperate socially by playing, helping, and
serving others in the family and the community.
• Serve as a model to them by reading and discussing
material of personal interest. Share with them some of the
things you are reading and doing.
• Don't hesitate to consult with teachers or other specialists
whenever you feel it to be necessary in order to better
understand what might be done to help your child learn.
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Second Lecture
16 July 2007
Theories
• popular theory is that learning disabilities
are genetically transmitted.
• the brains of learning-disabled people
might be different from the non-learning
disabled.
• Ignorance-Drugs-Vitamins
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Theory of cognitive development
(Jean Piaget 1896–1980)
• Sensorimotor stage (years
0–2)
• Preoperational stage (years
2–7)
• Concrete operational stage
(years 7–11)
• Formal operational stage
(years 11–adulthood)
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Sensorimotor stage (0-2 yrs)
According to Piaget,
this child is in the sensorimotor
stage and primarily explores
the world with senses
rather than through
mental operations.
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Sensorimotor stage
The first sub-stage
• known as the reflex schema stage, occurs
from birth to six weeks and is associated
primarily with the development of reflexes.
sucking of objects in the mouth, following moving or
interesting objects with the eyes, and closing of the hand when
an object makes contact with the palm (palmar grasp).
first six weeks of life, these reflexes begin to become voluntary actions
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The second sub-stage
• primary circular reaction phase, occurs
from six weeks to four months and is
associated primarily with the development
of habits
• repeating of an action (passing their hand
before their face).
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The third sub-stage
• The secondary circular reactions phase,
occurs from four to nine months and is
associated primarily with the development
of coordination between vision and
prehension.
• Three new abilities occur at this stage
• intentional grasping for a desired object,
secondary circular reactions, and
differentiations between ends and means
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The fourth sub-stage
• the co-ordination of secondary circular
reactions phase, occurs from nine to twelve
month (the development of logic)
• This is an extremely important stage of
development, holding what Piaget calls the
"first proper intelligence.
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The fifth sub-stage
• the tertiary circular reactions phase, occurs
from twelve to eighteen months and is
associated primarily with the discovery of
new means to meet goals.
• Piaget describes the child at this juncture
as the "young scientist,"
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The sixth sub-stage
• known as the invention of new means
through mental combinations phase is
associated primarily with the beginnings of
insight, or true creativity.
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Preoperational stage (2-7yrs)
1)Symbolic functioning
2)Centration
3)Intuitive thought
4)Egocentrism
5)Seriation
6)Classification
7)Inability to Conserve
8)Animism
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Symbolic functioning
• characterised by the use of mental
symbols, words, or pictures, which the child
uses to represent something which is not
physically present.
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Centration (berpusat)
• characterized by a child focusing or
attending to only one aspect of a stimulus
or situation. For example, in pouring a
quantity of liquid from a narrow beaker into
a shallow dish, a preschool child might
judge the quantity of liquid to have
decreased, because it is "lower"—that is,
the child attends to the height of the water,
but not to the compensating increase in the
diameter of the container.
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Intuitive thought
(pemikiran intuitif)
• occurs when the child is able to believe in
something without knowing why she or he
believes it.
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Egocentrism
• a version of centration, this denotes a
tendency of a child to only think from her or
his own point of view. Also, the inability of a
child to take the point of view of others.
Example, if a child is in trouble, he or she
might cover her eyes thinking if I cannot
see myself my mom cannot either.
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Seriation
• the ability to arrange objects in an order
according to size, shape, or any other
characteristic. For example, if given
different-shaded objects they may make a
colour gradient.
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Classification
• the ability to name and identify sets of
objects according to appearance, size or
other characteristic, including the idea that
one set of objects can include another. A
child is no longer subject to the illogical
limitations of animism (the belief that all
objects are animals and therefore have
feelings).
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Inability to Conserve
• lack perception of conservation of mass, volume,
and number after the original form has changed.
• For example, a child in this phase will believe that
a string of beads set up in a "O—O—O—O"
pattern will have a larger number of beads than a
string which has a "OOOO" pattern, because the
latter pattern has less space in between Os; or
that a tall, thin 8-ounce cup has more liquid in it
than a wide, short 8-ounce cup
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Animism
• The child believes that inanimate objects
have "lifelike" qualities and are capable of
action. Example, a child plays with a doll
and treats it like a real person. In a way this
is like using their imagination.
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Concrete operational stage
(7-11)
Decentering
Reversibility
Conservation
Elimination of Egocentrism
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Decentering (tidak berpusat)
• where the child takes into account multiple
aspects of a problem to solve it. For
example, the child will no longer perceive
an exceptionally wide but short cup to
contain less than a normally-wide, taller
cup.
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Reversibility (terbalikan)
• where the child understands that numbers
or objects can be changed, then returned to
their original state. For this reason, a child
will be able to rapidly determine that if 4+4
equals 8, 8−4 will equal 4, the original
quantity.
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Conservation
• understanding that quantity, length or
number of items is unrelated to the
arrangement or appearance of the object or
items. For instance, when a child is
presented with two equally-sized, full cups
they will be able to discern that if water is
transferred to a pitcher it will conserve the
quantity and be equal to the other filled
cup.
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Elimination of Egocentrism
• the ability to view things from another's
perspective (even if they think incorrectly)
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Formal operational stage (12-18)
• able to think abstractly and draw
conclusions from the information available
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Pavlov
B.F Skinner
Behaviourism
theory
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One of Pavlov’s Dogs
Ransangan & tindakbalas
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skinner
• Reinforcement (peneguhan)
Punishment (hukuman)
Extinction (penghapusan)
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Behavioral Theory
• Break down tasks into small segments
• Model, demonstrate, and explain each step in a
procedure or new task
• Include as much extra practice and review as
needed for mastery to occur
• Incorporate structure and predictable routine into
lessons
• Use monitoring and feedback as lesson
progresses rather than waiting until conclusion
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Constructivist Theory
(J. Bruner 1960)
Principles:
1. Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts
that make the student willing and able to learn (readiness).
2. Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by
the student (spiral organization).
3. Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and or
fill in the gaps (going beyond the information given).
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the learners are actively involved
the environment is democratic
the activities are interactive and student-centered
the teacher facilitates a process of learning in
which students are encouraged to be responsible
and autonomous
• students work primarily in groups and learning
and knowledge are interactive and dynamic.
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• great focus and emphasis on social and
communication skills, as well as
collaboration and exchange of ideas
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Constructivist Theory and Practice
• learning should be meaningful and related to real
life situations
• base the instruction on what the students already
know as a foundation (mapping and
brainstorming)
• focus on key ideas and the relationships of these
ideas within the subject areas and across subject
areas
• Active learning
• High level thinking skills
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Sekian Terima Kasih
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