How specific are disciplinary discourses?:
Towards some reconciling of general and
particular in academic literacy pedagogy
Tim Moore
Swinburne University
Disciplinary discourses: the epistemological view
Toulmin’s relativism
What has to be recognised first is that validity is an intra-field, not an
interfield notion. … the merits to be demanded of an argument in one field
will be found to be absent (in the nature of things) from entirely meritorious
arguments in another
Toulmin, S. (1958). The uses of argument.
Disciplinary discourses: the epistemological view
McPeck’s critical thinking
Just as the rules of a particular game do not necessarily apply to
other games, so certain principles of reason may apply within certain
spheres of human experience, but not in others. A principle in
business or law may be fallacious in science or ethics (McPeck,
1981: p.72)
McPeck, J. (1981). Critical thinking and education.
Disciplinary discourses: the cultural view
Geertz’s local knowledges
To an ethnographer sorting through the machinery of distant ideas, the
shapes of knowledge are always ineluctably local, indivisible from their
instruments and encasements
Geertz, C. (1983). Local knowledge.
Disciplinary discourses: the cultural view
Bourdieu’s habitus
An acquired system of generative schemes objectively adjusted to the
particular conditions in which it is constituted 1977: p. 95)
Bourdieu, P. (1977). Outline of a theory of practice.
The framework within which the cultural norms or models of behaviour
and action that are specific to a particular social group are consciously
internalized during socialization. These ‘dispositions’ function as a form
of pre-reflective background to subsequent action (Milner, 2002; p. 231)
Disciplinary discourses: the pedagogical view
The key to improving students’ standards of literacy lies we think in …
exploring the fundamental relationship between the culture [and subcultures] of knowledge and the language by which it is maintained and
expressed (1988: p.7).
Clanchy, J & Ballard, B. (1988). Literacy by degrees
Disciplinary discourses: The pedagogical view
•
[In disciplinary cultures] there are strong boundaries defining … variations in
knowledge, structures and norms of inquiry, different vocabularies and
discourses … (Candlin, Bhatia and Hyland, 1997) (my emphasis).
•
Disciplinary cultures are extraordinarily differentiated in almost any respect
one might name” (Candlin, 1998: p.5).
Incommensurable discourses?
Discipline
A eg
Philosophy
Discipline B
eg. Literary/
cultural studies
?
Discipline
C
eg. History
Each [disciplinary] discourse has unique ways of identifying issues,
asking questions, … presenting arguments, and these make the
possibility of transferable skills unlikely”
Hyland, K. (2000) Disciplinary discourses
Disciplinary discourses: The pedagogical view
Guide To Researching And Writing Philosophy Essays
1.Introduction
For many new students of Philosophy, writing a philosophy essay will be
something of a new experience, and no doubt many of you will be a little
unsure of what to expect, or of what is expected of you. Most of you will
have written essays in school for English, History, etc. A philosophy essay
is something different again. However, it is not an unfathomable, mysterious
affair, nor one where anything goes. This guide is intended to give you a few
preliminary pieces of advice about writing essays in philosophy, as well as a
few requirements.[1]
Philosophy: A disciplinary discourse?
A guide to writing philosophy essays
•
•
In the introductory paragraph, state the main conclusions that are reached in the
essay
Explain the context - or wider importance - of the argument you are considering.
•
Set out the argument as precisely and carefully as you can. Clearly identify the
conclusion of the argument, and its premises
•
Discuss the validity of the argument
•
Given that the argument is valid, discuss whether the premises are true
•
.………
Disciplinary discourses: The pedagogical view
History essay guide
One of the most important skills developed in an Arts degree is the ability to
communicate your ideas in writing clearly and effectively. … Essay writing
in History is particularly aimed at helping you progressively develop your
skills in research, analysing different forms of source material, using
different kinds of evidence, and writing strong, critical and clear arguments
based on this evidence.
The study – Participants and methods
Participants:
Academics from three disciplines
• History (n= 6)
• Philosophy (n= 5)
• Literary/Cultural Studies (n= 6)
Method:
• Semi-structured interviews
• Textual analysis
i) advice protocol documents.
ii) exercise tasks
iii) essay tasks
Towards some analytical categories
Consciousness is always consciousness of something (Brentano)
Thinking is always thinking about something, and that something
can never be ‘everything in general’, but must always be something
in particular” (McPeck, 1982, p. 4).
Sample essay topics
• Assess the usefulness of Marx’s theory of surplus value.
• How might we understand the actions of the Parisian students in
May 1968? What were the motivations for their actions?
Sample essay topics
• Assess the usefulness of Marx’s theory of surplus value.
• How might we understand the actions of the Parisian students in
May 1968? What were the motivations for their actions?
Sample essay topics
• Assess the usefulness of Marx’s theory of surplus value.
• How might we understand the actions of the Parisian students in
May 1968? What were the motivations for their actions?
Object of inquiry
textual vs phenomenal
Sample essay topics
• Assess the usefulness of Marx’s theory of surplus value.
• How might we understand the actions of the Parisian students in
May 1968? What were the motivations for their actions?
Content of inquiry
epithetic vs thematic
Sample essays topics
• Assess the usefulness of Marx’s theory of surplus value.
• How might we understand the actions of the Parisian students in
May 1968? What were the motivations for their actions?
Processes of inquiry
evaluative vs interpretative
Essay topic data - Philosophy
1.
Provide a statement of the argument of Aquinas’ Third way. Do
you think this is a persuasive argument for the existence of God?
2.
Critically evaluate Hume’s argument about testimony to
miraculous events? Is his view correct?
3.
What is Duff’s objection to Pascal’s Wager? Does it show that
there is something wrong with infinite decision theory?
Essay topic data - Philosophy
Objects of inquiry
(Textual: expository)
1.
Provide a statement of the argument of Aquinas’ Third Way. Do
you think this is a persuasive argument for the existence of God?
2.
Critically evaluate Hume’s argument about testimony to
miraculous events? Is his view correct?
3.
What is Duff’s objection to Pascal’s Wager? Does it show that
there is something wrong with infinite decision theory?
Essay topic data - Philosophy
1.
Provide a statement of the argument of Aquinas’ Third Way. Do
you think this is a persuasive argument for the existence of God?
2.
Critically valuate Hume’s argument about testimony to miraculous
events? Is his view correct?
3.
What is Duff’s objection to Pascal’s Wager? Does it show that
there is something wrong with infinite decision theory?
Content of inquiry
(Epithetic:
correctness,
persuasiveness etc.)
Essay topic data - Philosophy
1.
Provide a statement of the argument of Aquinas’ Third Way. Do
you think this is a persuasive argument for the existence of God?
2.
Critically evaluate Hume’s argument about testimony to
miraculous events? Is his view correct?
3.
What is Duff’s objection to Pascal’s Wager? Does it show that
there is something wrong with infinite decision theory?
Processes of inquiry
(Evaluative)
Essay topic data - Literary/cultural studies
1.
To what extent can the novel Nineteen Eighty-Four be considered
a science fiction text?
2.
To what extent can Peter Greenaway’s film The Belly of an
Architect be characterized as postmodern nostalgia?
3.
Discuss with detailed examples how intertextuality operates in:
i) any two versions of Frankenstein or
ii) Blade Runner and Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? or
iii) any other film or television programme and a novel on which
it is supposedly ‘based’.
Essay topic data - Literary/cultural studies
To what extent can the novel Nineteen Eighty-Four be considered a
science fiction text?
To what extent can Peter Greenaway’s film The Belly of an Architect
be characterized as postmodern nostalgia?
Discuss with detailed examples how intertextuality operates in:
i)
ii)
iii)
any two versions of Frankenstein or
Blade Runner and Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? or
any other film or television programme and a novel on which it
is supposedly ‘based’.
Objects of inquiry
(Textual: literary/cultural
texts)
Essay topic data - Literary/cultural studies
To what extent can the novel Nineteen Eighty-Four be considered a
science fiction text?
To what extent can Peter Greenaway’s film The Belly of an Architect
be characterized as postmodern nostalgia?
Discuss with detailed examples how intertextuality operates in:
i) any two versions of Frankenstein or
ii) Blade Runner and Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? or
iii) any other film or television programme and a novel on which it
is supposedly ‘based’.
Content of inquiry
(Thematic: textual,
conceptual)
Essay topic data - Literary/cultural studies
1.
To what extent can the novel Nineteen Eighty-Four be considered
a science fiction text?
2.
To what extent can Peter Greenaway’s film The Belly of an
Architect be characterized as postmodern nostalgia?
3.
Discuss with detailed examples how intertextuality operates in:
i) any two versions of Frankenstein or
ii) Blade Runner and Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? or
iii) any other film or television programme and a novel on which
it is supposedly ‘based’.
Processes of inquiry
(Interpretative)
Essay topic data - History
1.
What, besides aesthetic impulses, motivated the patrons of
Renaissance culture to commission works of art?
2.
How democratic do you consider the Athenian government to be
in the time of Perikles?
3.
How should we understand the legacy of Aboriginal dispossession
in Australia?
Essay topic data - History
What, besides aesthetic impulses, motivated the patrons of
Renaissance culture to commission works of art in your view?
How democratic do you consider the Athenian government to be in
the time of Perikles?
How should we understand the legacy of Aboriginal dispossession in
Australia?
Objects of inquiry
(Phenomenal: actions, practices
policies, states-of-affairs etc.)
Essay topic data - History
Content of inquiry (Thematic:
causes, consequences etc.)
What, besides aesthetic impulses, motivated the patrons of
Renaissance culture to commission works of art, in your view? ?
How democratic do you consider the Athenian government to be in
the time of Perikles?
How should we understand the legacy of Aboriginal dispossession in
Australia?
Essay topic data - History
1.
What, besides aesthetic impulses, motivated the patrons of
Renaissance culture to commission works of art, in your view?
2.
How democratic do you consider the Athenian government to be
in the time of Perikles?
3.
How should we understand the legacy of Aboriginal dispossession
in Australia?
Processes of inquiry
(Interpretative)
Distinct disciplinary discourses?
PHILOSOPHY
Object:
textual: (arguments/objections etc)
Processes: acts of evaluation (assessing, criticisng etc.)
Content:
epithetic (validity, rightness, persuasiveness etc.)
LITERARY/CULT STUDIES
Object:
textual: (novels, plays, television series etc.)
Processes: acts of interpretation (understanding etc.)
Content:
thematic (textual,,conceptual etc.)
HISTORY
Object:
phenomenal: (states-of-affairs, events, actions
Processes: acts of interpretation (viewing, understanding etc.)
Content:
thematic (causes, consequences, characterization etc.)
But, Literary/Cultural studies as Philosophy?
LITERARY/ CULTURAL STUDIES
Why does Simon During disagree with Frederic Jameson’s theory of
postmodernism? Is he right?’
PHILOSOPHY
What is Duff’s objection to Pascal’s Wager? Does it show that there
is something wrong with infinite decision theory?
But, History as Literary/Cultural studies?
HISTORY:
To what extent can Australian prisoner of war writings from World
War 2 be described as ‘embittered’ documents’?
LITERARY/ CULTURAL STUDIES
To what extent can Peter Greenaway’s film The Belly of an Architect
be characterized as postmodern nostalgia?
Philosophy as History?
PHILOSOPHY
What do you think was Plato’s motive for writing the Gorgias?
HISTORY
What, besides aesthetic impulses, motivated the patrons of
Renaissance culture to commission works of art?
Philosophy as Literary/Cultural Studies?
PHILOSOPHY
Explain the influence of Hegel’s ideas on Sartre’s account of our
relations with ‘others’ in Being and Nothingness and in Simone de
Beauvoir’s The Second Sex.
LITERARY/ CULTURAL STUDIES
To what extent can the novel Nineteen Eighty-Four be considered a
science fiction text? (In your answer, consider the novel’s generic
and intertextual relations with earlier 20th century dystopian and
utopian fictions by Zamyatin, Huxley and Wells.)
Overlapping discourses?
PHILOSOPHY
Object:
Processes:
Content:
textual: (arguments/objections etc)
acts of evaluation (assessing, criticisng etc.)
epithetic (validity, rightness persuasiveness etc.)
LITERARY/CULT STUDIES
Object:
textual: (novels, plays, television series etc.)
Processes: acts of interpretation (exploring, investigating
Content:
thematic (aesthetic, moral, textual etc.)
HISTORY
Object:
phenomenal (states-of-affairs, events, actions
Processes: acts of interpretation (viewing, understanding etc.)
Content:
thematic (causes, consequences, characterization etc.)
Against essentialism – “the centre cannot hold”
Given the complex, differentiated nature of communities it seems important
not to reduce a community of practice to a … uniform or univocal “centre” or
to a linear notion of skills acquisition. There is no place in a community of
practice designated “the periphery”, and most emphatically it has no single
core or centre
Lave and Wenger (1991: p. 36)
Against essentialism – “the centre cannot hold”
Grand rubrics like Natural Sciences, Biological Sciences, Social
Science and the Humanities have their uses in organizing curricula …
and in distinguishing broad traditions of intellectual style. And of course
the sorts of work conducted under any one of them do show some
general resemblances to one another and some genuine differences
from the sorts that are conducted under the others. …
But when these rubrics are taken to be a borders-and–territories map
of modern intellectual life. Or worse, a Linnean catalogue into which to
classify scholarly species, they merely block from view what is really
going on out there where men and women are thinking about things
and writing down what it is they think”
Geertz, 1983
Against essentialism – “the centre cannot hold”
G (Philosophy ): K works in both [the analytical and continental] traditions
and doesn’t really see that there is a serious divide. She wrote a paper a
couple of years ago called “A Plague on both your houses” where she was
taking issue with this divide between these schools. J is sympathetic too
But L and A are very much opposed – and they think that [the continental
tradition] is a kind of philosophical disaster – and they should be
effectively run out of town.
Against essentialism – “the centre cannot hold”
A (Literary/Cultural Studies): Although we are in the Centre together, there’s no
simply uniformity of view. I mean, B’s a Deleuzian. It’s fine, we disagree among
ourselves and we have different interests as well. M is interested in Russian
formalism. … People have different disciplinary foundations. And K ‘s interested
in German romanticism and eco-criticism.
Disciplinary discourses approach - non-transferable skills
Discipline
A eg
Philosophy
Discipline B
eg. Literary/
cultural studies
?
Discipline
C
eg. History
Each [disciplinary] discourse has unique ways of identifying issues,
asking questions, … presenting arguments, and these make the
possibility of transferable skills unlikely” (Hyland 2000: p.145 my
emphasis).
Generic ‘discourses’ - core skills
Although not every principle [of critical thinking] applies in every field there is a common core of basic principles that apply in most fields
(Ennis, 1987: p. 31).
Generic ‘discourses’ - core skills
The problem with academic discourses
(‘disciplinary or generic’)
The university has become either a place for producing specialised
capacities of an increasingly technical nature, or it is largely an amorphous
institution, the character of its internal life lacking any kind of clarity
Barnett, R. (2004). Learning for an unknown future.
Wittgenstein - Games and family resemblances
I am saying that these phenomena [games]* have no one thing in common
which makes us use the same word for all - but that they are related to one
another in many different ways.
I can think of no better expression to characterize these similarities than
family resemblances; for the various resemblances between members of a
family: build, features, colour of eyes, gait, temperament etc. etc. overlap
and criss-cross in the same way – and I shall say games (or disciplinary
discourses) form a family
Philosophical Investigations (1958) p. 31, sect. 66
* Such as those denoted by the notion of ‘disciplinary discourses’
Habitus – naming its principles
Object of inquiry
Processes of
inquiry
Content of
inquiry
What type of entities do students need to direct
their thinking towards (texts? – what type?;
phenomena - what type?)
What type of thinking processes is it envisaged
that students need to be engaged in? (evaluating;
criticising; exploring; interpreting; solving etc.)
What kinds of judgements do students need to
make ultimately (adequacy of an argument,
usefulness of a theory, motive for an action, ethics
of a policy etc.), and how might they go about
making them?
For what purposes? To what ends?
Transcending disciplinary discourses
What students stand most in need of is help to develop … the faculty of
judgement … It is only judgement that truly enables people to make
appropriate use of the knowledge and skills they have built up in the many
different situations of their learning. (Taylor, 1999).
Against essentialism – “the centre cannot hold”
A (Literary/Cultural Studies): Although we are in the Centre together, there’s no
simply uniformity of view. I mean, B’s a Deleuzian. It’s fine, we disagree among
ourselves and we have different interests as well. M is interested in Russian
formalism. … And K ‘s interested in German romanticism and eco-criticism.
People have different critical outlooks
Against essentialism – “the centre cannot hold”
G (Philosophy ): K works in both [the analytical and continental] traditions
and doesn’t really see that there is a serious divide. She wrote a paper a
couple of years ago called “A Plague on both your houses” where she was
taking issue with this divide between these schools. J is sympathetic too
But L and A are very much opposed – and they think that [the continental
tradition] is a kind of philosophical disaster – and those in the Centre
should be effectively run out of town.